1. Identify and describe species using Latin or Latinized 18. The boundaries between adjacent communities.

nouns and adjectives, or names of people or places. ECOTONES

BIONOMIAL/S
19. A measure of the number of different species,
2. States that energy is conserved. It is neither created ecological niches, or genetic variation present.
nor destroyed under normal conditions. FIRST LAW OF BIODIVERSITY
THERMODYNAMICS
20. Type of symbiosis in which one member clearly
3. The scientific study of relationships between benefits and the other apparently is neither benefited
organisms and their environment. ECOLOGY nor harmed. COMMENSALISM
4. A special class of proteins that carry out all the 21. The study of types of organisms and their
chemical reactions required to create various structures. relationship. TAXONOMY
ENZYMES
22. Species that tolerate a wide range of conditions or
5. The process in which bacteria use chemical bonds exploit a wide range of resources. GENERALISTS
between inorganic elements, such as hydrogen sulfide
23. Describes both the role played by a species in a
(H2S) or hydrogen gas (H2), to provide energy for
biological community and the set of environmental
synthesis of organic molecules. CHEMOSYNTHESIS
factors that determine its distribution. ECOLOGICAL
6. All of the populations living and interacting in a NICHE
particular area. BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY OR
24. When an individual organism can respond
COMMUNITY
immediately to a changing environment. ACCLIMATION
7. These microorganisms are second in importance to
25. Changes to the DNA coding sequence of individuals
producers because without their activity nutrients would
that occurs occasionally, and the changed sequences are
remain locked-up in the organic compounds of dead
inherited by offspring. MUTATION
organisms and discarded body wastes, rather than being
made available to successive generations of organisms. 26. Any organism that feeds directly on another living
DECOMPOSERS organism, whether or not this kills the prey. PREDATOR/S
8. Some of the precipitation and snow melt moves 27. An indication of the rate of solar energy conversion
downwards or infiltrates through cracks, joints and pores to chemical energy. PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY OR
in soil and rocks until it reaches the water table where it PRODUCTIVITY
becomes groundwater. PERCOLATION
28. Also known as prairies or steppes; receive between
9. General type of communities with similar climate 25 and 75 cm of rain per year. GRASSLAND/S
conditions, growth patterns, and vegetation types.
BIOMES 29. Wetlands without trees. MARSH OR MARSHES

10. Occur where precipitation is rare and unpredictable, 30. Low, narrow, sandy islands that form to parallel to a
usually with less than 30 cm of rain per year. DESERT coastline. They occur where the continental shelf is
shallow and rivers or coastal currents provide a steady
11. They occur along calm, shallow, tropical coastlines source of sediments. BARRIER ISLAND
around the world and help stabilize shorelines, and they
are also critical nurseries for fish, shrimp, and other
commercial species. MANGROVE/S
12. Shallow ecosystems in which the land surface is
saturated or submerged at least part of the year.
WETLANDS
13. Areas of saturated ground, and usually the ground
are composed of deep layers of accumulated, undecayed
vegetation known as peat. BOGS
14. A treeless landscape that occurs at high latitudes or
on mountaintops, has a growing season of only two or
three months, and it may have frost any month of the
year. TUNDRA/S
15. Occur where rainfall is abundant - more than 200 cm
(80 in) per year and temperatures are warm to hot year-
round. TROPHICAL RAINFORESTS
16. Any force that disrupts the established patterns of
species diversity and abundance, community structure,
or community properties. ECOLOGICAL DISTURBANCE
17. The history of community development. When a
succession occurs, organisms occupy a site and change
the environmental conditions. ECOLOGICAL
SUCCESSION
LECTURE 1: MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE Four major categories of organic compounds in living
things: Lipids (including fats and oils). Carbohydrates
Environment- French word environner(encircle or
(including sugars, starches, and cellulose). Proteins
surround).
(composed of chains of subunits called amino acids).
- circumstances or conditions that surround an Nucleic acids (complex organic substance present in
organism or group of organisms living cells, especially DNA or RNA).

Environmental Science – systematic study of our Nucleotides carry information between cells, tissues,
environment and our place in it. and organs and the sources of intracellular energy.

Environmental Engineering - A branch of engineering ribo nucleic acid (RNA) - Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
that aims to improve the quality of environment and Cytosine (C) Uracil (U)
promotes protection of people from adverse
deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA) - Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
environmental effects like pollution.
Cytosine (C) Thymine (T)
The Great Stink - event in Central London in July and
8. Cells - Minute compartments within which the
August 1858 during which the hot weather exacerbated
processes of life are carried out.
the smell of untreated human waste and industrial
effluent that was present on the banks of the River single celled organisms - Bacteria, some algae, and
Thames. protozoa

Elements of Life ENZYMES - special class of proteins that carry out all the
chemical reactions required to create various structures.
1. Ecology – scientific study of relationships
between organism and their environment. METABOLISM - multitude of enzymatic reactions
2. Matter – anything that occupy space and has performed by an organism.
mass. 4 state(solid, liquid, gas and plasma)
9. Energy - ability to do work, such as moving matter
Plasma – occurs when matter is instensely heated that over a distance or causing a heat transfer
causes electron to release and particles are ionized or between two objects at different temperatures
electrically charged.
TYPES OF ENERGY
3. Conservation of Matter – “Matter is neither
Kinetic Energy - energy contained in moving objects
created nor destroyed, rather, it is recycled over
and over again.” Potential Energy - stored energy that is dormant but
4. Elements – substances that cannot be broken available for use
down into simpler forms by ordinary chemical
Chemical Energy - stored in the food that you eat and the
reactions.
gasoline that you put into your car
5. Atoms – smallest particles; positively charged
protons, negatively charged electrons and Heat - the energy that can be transferred between
electrically neutral neutrons objects of different temperature

Atomic number - characteristic number of protons per UNITS OF ENERGY

atom. Atomic mass The sum of protons and neutrons. One joule (J) is the work done when one kg is accelerated
Isotopes forms of an element that differ in atomic mass. at one meter per second.
Compounds substances composed of different kinds of
atoms. Molecules pair or group of atoms that can exist One calorie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to heat
as a single unit. one gram of pure water one degree Celsius. A calorie can
also be measured as 4.184 J
6. IONS - Charged atoms
10. Thermodynamics - A study that deals with the
Anions - Negatively charged ions Example: Chlorine (Cl)
transfer of energy in natural processes.
readily gains electrons, forming chlorine ions (Cl− ).
Cations - Positively charged ions Example: A hydrogen (H) FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - This states that
atom can give up its sole electron to become a hydrogen energy is conserved. It is neither created nor destroyed
ion (H +) under normal conditions

Acids are substances that readily give up hydrogen ions SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS States that, with
in water. Bases are substances that readily bond with H+ each successive energy transfer or transformation in a
ions. pH describes the strength of an acid and base system, less energy is available to do work. Energy is
degraded to lower-quality forms, or it dissipates and is
7. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS - chains and rings of lost, as it is used
carbon atoms form the skeletons of organic
compounds.
ENERGY FOR LIFE an organism is the position it occupies in a food
web
Extremophiles are organisms that have been discovered
6. Producers - Organisms that photosynthesize or
on Earth that survive in environments that were once
produce food or their own food, mainly green
thought not to be able to sustain life.
plants and algae
Chemosynthesis is the process in which bacteria use 7. Consumers - organisms that consumes the
chemical bonds between inorganic elements, such as chemical energy harnessed by the producers
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or hydrogen gas (H2), to provide Herbivores – plant eaters, e.g. goat, cow, horse,
energy for synthesis of organic molecules. grasshopper, etc.
Carnivores – flesh eaters, e.g. lion, hyena, caracal,
1. Solar Energy - essential to life.
wolf, etc.
Photosynthesis converts radiant energy into high-quality Omnivores – eat both plant and animal matter,
chemical energy in the bonds that hold together organic e.g. man
molecules. 8. Scavengers - Organisms that clean up dead
carcasses of larger animals such as crows, jackals,
From Species to Ecosystem
and vultures
• Ecology – the scientific study of relationships between 9. Detritivores - consume litter, debris, and dung
organisms and their environment. such as ants and beetles
• Species – refers to all organisms of the same kind that 10. Decomposer - Organisms that complete the final
are genetically similar enough to breed in nature and breakdown and recycling of organic materials
produce live, fertile offspring. such as fungi and bacteria

• Population – consists of all the members of a species

living in a given area at the same time. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS - graphical representation of
• Biological Community – All of the populations living and the relationship between different organisms in an
interacting in a particular area. ecosystem.

• Ecosystem – (Ecological system) is composed of a Types

biological community and its physical environment. The 1. Pyramid of numbers - Presents the number of
environment includes: organisms in each trophic level without any
o Abiotic factors - nonliving components such as consideration for their size. Unit: number of
climate, water, minerals, and sunlight organisms.

o Biotic factors – examples are organisms and

their products (secretions, wastes, and remains) and
effects in a given area.

2. Productivity - amount of biomass (biological

matter) produced in a given area during a given 2. Pyramid of biomass - Presents the total mass of
period of time. organisms at each trophic level. This type of
pyramid is largest at the bottom and gets smaller
Two types:
going up, but exceptions do exist
a. Primary Productivity – e.g. photosynthesis,
because it is the basis for almost all other growth
in an ecosystem.
b. Secondary Productivity - manufacture of
biomass by organisms that eat plants.

3. Food Chain - A linked feeding series. 3. Pyramid of productivity - Presents the total
amount of energy present at each trophic level,
as well as the loss of energy between trophic
levels

4. Food Web - Interconnection of individual food

chains.
5. Trophic Level - derived from the Greek word
"trophe" which means “food”. The trophic level of
MATERIAL CYCLE LECTURE 2: EVOLUTION, BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES,
AND SPECIES INTERACTIONS
1. Hydrologic Cycle - The path of water through our
environment Evolution Produces Species Diversity
a. Evaporation- water is heated by the sun,
1. Adaptation - One of the most important concepts
energized and then evaporate and rise as invisible
in biology. allow a species to survive in its
vapor in the atmosphere
environment.
b. Transpiration- Water vapor is also emitted from
plant leaves “ADAPT” - Acclimation and Genetic traits
c. Condensation - water vapor rises, it cools and
[Link] - When an individual organism can
eventually condenses
respond immediately to a changing environment
d. Precipitation - form of rain, snow and hail comes
from clouds. [Link] traits - passed from generation to generation
e. Runoff - visible flow of water in rivers, creeks and and allow a species to live more successfully in its
lakes as the water stored in the basin drains out environment.
f. Percolation - Some of the precipitation and snow Evolution – the basic idea is that species change
melt moves downwards percolates or infiltrates
over generations because individuals compete for scarce
through cracks
resources.
g. Groundwater - held in cracks and pore spaces
h. Water table - level at which water stands in a Natural Selection – the process of better-
shallow well selected individuals passing their traits to the next
generation.

Mutations – changes to the DNA coding

2. Carbon Cycle - begins with the intake of carbon sequence of individuals that occurs occasionally, and the
dioxide by photosynthetic organisms. Carbon
changed sequences are inherited by offspring.
(and hydrogen and oxygen) atoms are
incorporated into sugar molecules during
photosynthesis. 2. Limiting Factors of Species - Pressure and
3. Nitrogen Cycle – Nitrogen moves through the influence to fitness of an individual and their
food web as organism die, decompose, or are offspring are exerted by factors such as
consumed. environmental.
Denitrification-gaseous forms ((important in removing 3. Critical Factor - According to the chemist Justus
nitrogen from aquatic systems that eutrophication). von Liebig (1840), the single factor in shortest
supply relative to demand is the critical factor
4. Phosphorus Cycle - most important among the
determining where a species lives
many elements released to ecosystem from rock
4. Tolerance Limits- minimum and maximum levels.
formations because it is often limited in supply affect the distribution of young differently than
- one-way path. This is because phosphorus has no
they affect adults.
atmospheric form, in which it can quickly 5. Ecological Niche - describes both the role played
recirculate.
by a species in a biological community and the set
- repeatedly through the food web, as inorganic
of environmental factors that determine its
phosphorus is taken up by plants, incorporated distribution.
into organic molecules, and passed on to
consumers. Habitat – the place or set of environmental conditions in
which a particular organism lives.

Generalists – species that tolerate a wide range of

conditions or exploit a wide range of resources. Example:
Species that thrive in broad variety of environments such
as weedy species or pests (rats, cockroaches, or
dandelions).

Specialists – species that have a narrow ecological niche.

Examples are Giant Panda and Giant Saguaro.

6. Speciation- development of a new species.

2 kinds of speciation:

o Allopatric Speciation – speciation that occurs when

populations are geographically separated.
 *Geographic Isolation – when the habitat are far 4. Keystone Species - plays a critical role in a
enough apart that population were genetically isolated; biological community that is out of proportion to
they couldn’t interbreed with populations on the other its abundance
habitat.

o Sympatric Speciation – speciation that occurs within

Community Properties
one geographic area.
1. Primary Productivity - rate of biomass
*Behavioral Isolation – when two identical species
production.
live in similar habitats but have different mating calls.
2. Abundance and Diversity - The abundance of a
This difference is enough to prevent interbreeding.
particular species often is inversely related to the
• Directional Selection – the shift toward one total diversity of the community.
extreme of a trait.
Abundance is an expression of the total number of
7. Taxonomy - study of types of organisms and their organisms in a biological community. Diversity is a
relationships. measure of the number of different species, ecological
niches, or genetic variation present.
Binomials - also called Scientific or Latin Name o
Identify and describe species using Latin or Latinized 3. Ecological Structure - patterns of spatial
nouns and adjectives, or names of people or places. distribution of individuals and populations within
o Scientists communicate using scientific names a community, as well as the relation of a
instead of common names like lion, dandelion, or ant particular community to its surroundings.
to avoid confusion. 4. Resilience and Stability –

Three kinds of stability or resiliency in ecosystems:

Species Interactions 1. Constancy – lack of fluctuations in composition or

functions
1. Competition - A type of antagonistic relationship
within a biological community. 2. Inertia - resistance to perturbations

Types of competition: 3. Renewal - ability to repair damage after disturbance

 Intraspecific competition – competition among 5. Edges and Boundaries –

members of the same species.
edge effects - boundary between one habitat and its
 Interspecific competition – competition between neighbors is an important aspect of community structure
members of different species.
Ecotones are what the ecologists call the boundaries
2. Predator - any organism that feeds directly on between adjacent communities.
another living organism, whether or not this kills
Closed Community - a community that is sharply divided
the prey.
from its neighbors.
3. Symbiosis – two or more species live intimately
together, with their fates linked. Symbiotic Open Community - a community with gradual or
relationships often enhance the survival of one or indistinct boundaries over which many species cross.
both partners.

Types of Symbiosis: Dynamic and Changing Communities

 Mutualism –both members’ benefits. (e.g. Dogs and 1. Ecological Succession - history of community
Humans) development. When a succession occurs,
 Commensalism –one member clearly benefits and the organisms occupy a site and change the
other apparently is neither benefited nor harmed. (e.g. a environmental conditions.
spider building a web on a tree) Climax Community is the community that developed last
 Parasitism –dependency of the parasite on its host. and lasted the longest.
(fleas and mosquitoes feed on blood from other 2 kinds of succession:
organisms
a. Primary succession - Land that is bare of soil (a
 Endosymbiosis – one species living inside another one. sandbar, mudslide, rock face, and volcanic flow)
(e.g. Protozoans that live inside termites and help them is colonized by living organisms where none lived
digest wood)  Ectosymbiosis – one species living on the before.
surface of the other species. (e.g. Lice that feed on the
skin, blood, or oil secretions of the host)
 b. Secondary succession - When an existing 3. Tropical Savannas and Grasslands
community is disturbed, a new one develops Grasslands - also known as prairies or steppes;
from the biological legacy of the old. receive between 25 and 75 cm of rain per year.
Savannas - extensive grasslands w/ occasional or
Ecological development or facilitation - In both kinds of
patches of trees; typically tropical w/ 50-150 cm
succession, when organisms change the environment by
of rain per year.
modifying soil, light levels, food supplies, and
4. Desert - Occur where precipitation is rare and
microclimate, the change permits new species to
unpredictable, usually with less than 30 cm of
colonize and eventually replace the previous species.
rain per year.
Pioneer species - In primary succession on land, the first
5. Temperate Grasslands - As in tropical latitudes,
colonists (microbes, mosses, and lichens) that can
temperate (mid-latitude) grasslands occur where
withstand a harsh environment with few resources.
there is enough rain to support abundant grass
2. Disturbance - Any force that disrupts the but not enough for forests.
established patterns of species diversity and
Forbs- diverse mix of grasses and flowering herbaceous
abundance, community structure, or community
plants
properties.
6. Temperate Shrublands- evergreen shrubs with
Disturbance-adapted species - species that can survive
small, leathery, sclerophyllous (hard, waxy)
periodic disturbance (survive fires underground, or resist
leaves form dense thickets.
the flames, and then reseed quickly after fires).
7. Temperate Forests
3. Introduced Species - Continuous introduction of a. Deciduous Forests - broadleaf forests occur
new community members and the disappearance throughout the world where rainfall is plentiful.
of previously existing species are requirements of b. Coniferous Forests - grow in a wide range of
succession. temperature and moisture conditions.

LECTURE 3: BIOMES - General type of communities with 8. Boreal Forest – or northern Forests. Lie between
similar climate conditions, growth patterns, and about 50° and 60° north. Mountainous areas at
vegetation types. lower latitudes may also have many
characteristics and species of the boreal forest.
Terrestrial Biomes - Characteristics of biological
9. Tundra – a treeless landscape that occurs at high
communities vary with temperature, precipitation, and
latitudes or on mountaintops, has a growing
latitude.
season of only two or three months, and it may
- Vertical zonation occurs as vegetation type have frost any month of the year.
change rapidly from warm and dry to cold and
Arctic Tundra - An expansive biome that has low
wet as you go up a mountain.
productivity because it has a short growing season.
During midsummer, 24-hour sunshine supports a burst of
1. Tropical Moist Forests
plant growth and an explosion of insect life.
Kinds of Moist Tropical Forests
Alpine Tundra - Occurring on a near mountain top, has
 Cloud Forests – are found high in the mountains where environmental conditions and vegetation similar to arctic
fog and mist keep vegetation wet all the time. tundra. These areas have a short, intense growing
season. Many alpine tundra plants also have deep
 Tropical rainforests – occur where rainfall is abundant
pigmentation and leathery leaves to protect against the
– more than 200 cm (80 in) per year – and temperatures
strong ultraviolet light in the thin mountain atmosphere.
are warm to hot year-round

2. Tropical Seasonal Forests - Drought-tolerant

forests that look brown and dormant in the dry 1. Marine Ecosystem - aquatic environments with
season but burst into vivid green during rainy high levels of dissolved salt. These include the
months. Often called Dry Tropical Forests open ocean, the deep-sea ocean, and coastal
because they are dry much of the year; however, marine ecosystems, each of which have different
there must be some periodic rain to support tree physical and biological characteristics
growth.
Vertical Stratification -a key feature of aquatic
ecosystems, mainly because light decreases rapidly with
depth, and communities below the photic zone must rely
on energy sources other than photosynthesis to persist.
Phytoplankton – microscopic floating algae that carry on  Epilimnion – a warmer upper layer that is mixed by
photosynthesis in pelagic ecosystem wind and warmed by the sun.

Zooplankton – small, weakly swimming animals that  Hypolimnion – below the epilimnion. A colder,
feed on phytoplankton. deeper layer that is not mixed.
Ocean Systems based on depth and proximity to shore:  Thermocline – Sharp temperature boundary.
 Benthic – communities occur on the bottom.
 Mesolimnion – below thermocline, the water is
 Pelagic zone – (from “sea” in Greek) are the water much colder.
column.

 Epipelagic zone – (epi = on top) has photosynthetic

4. Wetlands - s Shallow ecosystems in which the
organisms. Below this are the mesopelagic (meso =
land surface is saturated or submerged at least
medium), and bathypelagic (bathos = deep) zones.
part of the year.
 Deepest layers: Abyssal Zone (to 4,000 m) and Hadal 5. Swamps - Also known as wooded wetlands
Zone (deeper than 6,000 m). Wetlands with trees.
6. Marshes – wetlands without trees
 Littoral Zones – shorelines.  Intertidal Zone – area
7. Bogs - Areas of saturated ground, and usually the
exposed by low tides.
ground are composed of deep layers of
accumulated, undecayed vegetation known as
peat.
2. Coastal Zones
8. Fens - s Similar to bogs except that they are
Coral Reefs – are among the best-known marine mainly fed by groundwater, so that they have
ecosystems because of their extraordinary biological mineral-rich water and specially adapted plant
productivity and their diverse and beautiful organisms. species.
Mangroves – are trees that grow in salt water. They occur
along calm, shallow, tropical coastlines around the world.
Human Disturbance –
Mangrove forests or swamps help stabilize shorelines,
and they are also critical nurseries for fish, shrimp, and
other commercial species.

Estuaries – are bays where rivers empty into the sea,

mixing fresh water with salt water.

Salt marshes – shallow wetlands flooded regularly or

occasionally with seawater, occur on shallow coastlines,
including estuaries.

Tide Pools – are depressions in a rocky shoreline that are

flooded at high tide but retain some water at low tide.
These areas remain rocky where wave action prevents
most plant growth or sediment (mud) accumulation.

Barrier Islands – are low, narrow, sandy islands that form

to parallel to a coastline. They occur where the
continental shelf is shallow and rivers or coastal currents
provide a steady source of sediments.

Freshwater Ecosystems - v Vary according to depth and

light penetration, which control size and types of
vegetation.

3. Freshwater Lakes - l Like marine environments,

have distinct vertical zones.

Vertical Zones

 Benthos – the bottom, occupied by a variety of

snails, burrowing worms, fish and other organisms.
Geology, Earth Resources, and Climate Change Type of Plate Boundaries

Earth is a dynamic planet and constantly changing Divergent plate boundary, lithospheric plates MOVE
structure. APART.

Layers of Earth Convergent plate boundary plates are MOVING

TOWARD EACH OTHER.
Core, or interior, is composed of a dense, intensely hot
mass of metal, mostly iron, thousands of kilometers in Transform Boundaries - The opposite sides of a
diameter. Solid in the center but more fluid in the outer transform fault belong to two different plates, and these
core, this immense mass generates the magnetic field are moving in opposite directions.
that envelops the earth.

Mantle is surrounding the molten outer core. It is a hot,

ROCKS AND MINERALS
pliable layer of rock. The mantle is much less dense than
the core because it contains a high concentration of mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element
lighter elements, such as oxygen, silicon, and or compound with a definite chemical composition and a
magnesium. regular internal crystal structure.

Crust is the cool, lightweight, brittle rock outermost layer Types of Minerals
of the earth. The crust below oceans is relatively thin (8–
1. SILICATES - largest compositional group of
15 km), is dense, and young (less than 200 million years
minerals, all of which are compounds containing
old) because of constant recycling. Crust under
silicon and oxygen, and most of which contain
continents is relatively thick (25–75 km) and light, and as
other elements as well.
old as 3.8 billion years, with new material being added
continually. It also is predominantly granitic, while  Quartz - probably the best known silicate.
oceanic crust is mainly dense basaltic rock. Compositionally, it is the simplest, containing only silicon
and oxygen. Quartz is found in a variety of rocks and soils.
the manufacture of glass, which also consists mostly of
Plate Tectonics silicon and oxygen. Quartz-rich sand and gravel are used
in very large quantities in construction.
continental drift - Pangaea (Greek for “all lands”), which
had then split apart, the modern continents moving to  Feldspars - The most abundant group of minerals in
their present positions via a process the crust is a set of chemically similar minerals . These
common minerals are made from elements abundant in
plate tectonics - c Continental “drift” turned out to be
the crust. They are used extensively in the manufacture
just one consequence of processes encompassed by a
of ceramics.
broader theory.
 Ferromagnesian - The general term used to describe
Tectonics is the study of large scale movement and
those silicates—usually dark-colored (black, brown, or
deformation of the earth’s outer layers.
green)— that contain iron and/or magnesium, with or
 Plate tectonics relates such deformation to the without additional elements. - Olivine is simple
existence and movement of rigid “plates” over a weaker, ferromagnesian mineral, is a major constituent of earth’s
more plastic layer in the earth’s upper mantle. mantle; gem-quality olivines from mantle-derived
volcanic rocks are the semiprecious gem peridot.

Micas are another group of several silicate minerals with

Outer Zone of the Earth
similar physical properties, compositions, and crystal
Lithosphere - lithos , meaning “rock. structures. Micas are sheet silicates, built on an atomic
- outer solid layer of the earth scale of stacked-up sheets of linked silicon and oxygen
atoms. Because the bonds between sheets are relatively
Asthenosphere - layer below the lithosphere weak, the sheets can easily be broken apart
- Greek word asthenes, meaning “without  Clays are another family within the sheet silicates; in
strength.” clays, the sheets tend to slide past each other, a
characteristic that contributes to the slippery feel of
many clays and related minerals. Clays are somewhat
Locating Plate Boundaries - The distribution of unusual among the silicates in that their structures can
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions indicates that these absorb or lose water, depending on how wet conditions
phenomena are far from uniformly distributed over the are. Clays also have important uses, especially in making
earth. ceramics and in building materials. Other clays are useful
as lubricants in the muds used to cool the drill bits in oil- the remains of land plants that flourished and died in
drilling rigs. swamps.

2. NONSILICATES - some chemical constituent or

characteristic that all members of the group have
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS - The name metamorphic
in common. Most often, the common component
comes from the Greek for “changed form.”
is the same negatively charged ion or group of
atoms. - has formed from another, preexisting rock that was
subjected to heat and/or pressure.

Some Metamorphic Rocks:  Metaconglomerate and

rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more
metavolcanic describe, respectively, a metamorphosed
minerals, or mineral materials.
conglomerate and a metamorphosed volcanic rock. 
Categories of Rocks Quartzite is a quartz-rich metamorphic rock, often
formed from a very quartz rich sandstone.  Marble is
1. IGNEOUS ROCK - formed by the solidification and
metamorphosed limestone in which the individual
crystallization of a cooling magma.
calcite grains have recrystallized and become tightly
Indigenous-derived from the Latin term ignis, interlocking.
meaning “fire.”
Some metamorphic-rock names indicate only the rock’s
Ex: Plutonic Igneous Rock- derived from Pluto, the current composition, with no particular implication of
Greek god of the lower world. what it was before. A common example is amphibolite,
Volcanic- given to an igneous rock formed at or close which can be used for any metamorphic rock rich in
to the earth’s surface. amphibole. It might have been derived from a
sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous rock of
2. SEDIMENTS & SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed at appropriate chemical composition; the presence of
low temperatures. set of processes by which abundant metamorphic amphibole indicates moderately
sediments are transformed into rock is intense metamorphism, not the previous rock type.  In
collectively described as lithification (from the a rock subjected to directed stress, minerals that form
Greek word lithos, meaning “stone”). elongated or platy crystals may line up parallel to each
Clastic sedimentary rocks o From the Greek word other. The resultant texture is described as foliation, from
klastos, meaning “broken” o Formed from the products the Latin for “leaf”. Slate is metamorphosed shale that
of the mechanical breakup of other rocks. has developed foliation under stress. The resulting rock
tends to break along the foliation planes, parallel to the
 Sandstone, is a rock composed of sand-sized sediment alignment of those minerals, and this characteristic
particles, 16 to 2 millimeters (0.002 to 0.08 inches) in makes it easy to break up into slabs for flagstones.  The
diameter.  Shale is made up of finer-grained sediments, same characteristic is observed in schist, a coarser-
and the individual grains cannot be seen in the rock with grained, mica-rich metamorphic rock in which the mica
the naked eye.  Conglomerate is a relatively coarse- flakes are similarly oriented.  In other metamorphic
grained rock, with fragments above 2 millimeters (0.08 rocks, different minerals may be concentrated in
inches) in diameter, and sometimes much larger. irregular bands, often with darker, ferromagnesian-rich
Chemical sedimentary rocks o Form not from bands alternating with light bands rich in feldspar and
mechanical breakup and transport of fragments, but quartz. Such a rock is called gneiss (pronounced “nice”).
from crystals formed by precipitation or growth from
solution. o Examples of chemical sedimentary rocks: 
Limestone, composed mostly of calcite (calcium
carbonate). The chemical sediment that makes
limestone may be deposited from fresh or salt water;
under favorable chemical conditions, thick limestone
beds, perhaps hundreds of meters thick, may form. 
Rock salt, made up of the mineral halite, which is the
mineral name for ordinary table salt (sodium chloride). A
salt deposit may form when a body of salt water is
isolated from an ocean and dries up. o Some chemical
sediments have a large biological contribution. A
sequence of sedimentary rocks may include layers of
organic sediments , carbon-rich remains of living
organisms; coal is an important example, derived from