Intrumentation

(ENEX 252)
Anila Kansakar
Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
Pulchowk Campus
Chapter 2: Theory of
Measurement
Theory of Measurement
• 2.1 Static performance parameters: Accuracy, precision,
sensitivity, resolution and linearity
• 2.2 Dynamic performance parameters: Response time, frequency
response and bandwidth
• 2.3 Error in measurement
• 2.4 Statistical analysis of error in measurement
• 2.5 Measurement of resistance (Low, medium and high)
• 2.6 DC / AC bridge (Wheatstone bridge, Maxwell’s bridge, Schering
bridge)
Introduction
• Measurement is an act on process of comparison between the unknown
physical quantity to its predefined standard in order to find the value of
unknown quantity.
• The process of determing the amount , degree or capacity by comparison
(direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system unites being
used.
• A measurement system is a system that converts an unknown quantity
being measured to a numerical unit an instrument.
• The measurement is said to be proper if the measured value is less
erroneous.
• To make error free measurement, the user must know the characteristics and
operation of the instrument, basic laws to handle instrument and causes of
errors in measurement.
• Thus we have to study about the characteristics of the instruments: Error
and its analysis, statistical analysis of error and minimization that of
error or controlling of error, etc.
• Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the
present value of the quantity under measurement.
• Two types of Instruments:
• Analog Instrument: a deflection type instrument with a scale and movable
pointer.
• Digital Instrument: display in decimal (digital) from the value of the
quantity being measured.
• Eg:
1.Ruler: A basic measuring tool used to measure length or distance,
typically marked in centimeters and inches.
2.Thermometer: This instrument measures temperature, available in
several types such as mercury, digital, and infrared thermometers used
for various applications including meteorology and healthcare.
Measurement System
Performance

• The treatment of instrument and

measurement system
characteristics can be divided
into two distinct categories viz. :
1. Static characteristics
2. Dynamic
characteristics
1. Static characteristics

• Some applications involve the measurement of quantities that are

either constant or vary slowly with time.
• Under these circumstances, it is possible to define a set of criteria that
gives a meaningful description quality of measurement without
interfering with dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential
equations.
• These criteria are called Static Characteristics.
• Examples of Static Measurement:
• Thermometers: Measuring the temperature of a stable environment, such as
a room temperature thermometer that gives a steady readout without
fluctuations.
• Weights: A weighing scale measuring the static weight of an object (e.g.,
weighing a bag of flour). The reading reflects the weight without any
movement.
Important static characteristics are:

Accuracy
Precision
Sensitivity
Resolution
Linearity
Reproducibility
Drift
Dead Zone Hysteris
Accuracy
• Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the quantity being measured.
• Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth.
• It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true
value of the quantity to be measured.
• The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
i. Point Accuracy:
▪ -Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale.
▪ -It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on
the scale.
▪ -Point accuracy is stated for one or more points in the range.
ii. Accuracy as percentage of scale span:
▪ When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in
terms of scale range.
▪ Example – if accuracy of a thermometer with range 500oC with ±0.5%
then at 25oC, error will be (500/25*(0.5%)) = 10%, so misleading
iii. Accuracy as percentage of true value:
▪ The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of
the true value of the quantity being measured.
▪ Example – if accuracy is ±0.5% of true value then as reading fet smaller
so do that errors, so more informative.
Precision (Precise – clearly or sharply defined)
• It is the measure of consistency or reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements differ from
one another.
• Degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
• The precision is composed of two characteristics:
• Conformity
• Number of Significant Figures.
• Conformity is necessary but not sufficient for precision because of lack of significant
figures obtained.
• Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy
• More significant figures in measured value, the grater the precision of measurement.
• Higher degree of conformity of closeness to the true value of the measured value
guarantees the accuracy.
• Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an
ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the
nonavailability of proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale
reading is a precision error.
Sensitivity
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds.
• It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.
• Mathematically it is expressed as [see next slide]:
• Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of
the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve.
• If the calibration curve is not linear as shown, then the sensitivity
varies with the input.
• Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is defined as the
reciprocal of sensitivity.
• Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity
 When a calibration cui:ve is linear as in Fig. 2· 3 (a) the sensitivity. of the instrument can be
defined as in slope of the caHbratiou curve. For this case the sensitivity is constant over the
entire rnnge of ~he instr~me~~t.: However, if the :c.u~ve }s no~ nominall~/ a straight line the
sensitivity
varies with tbe mput as m Fig.:2'3 (b). The sens1ttv1tv m this case vart~s
Linearity
• It means constant sensitivity throughout whole measurement range.
• It is defined as the ability to produce the input characteristics symmetrical
and this can be expressed as:
y=mx+c
When the input-output points of the instrument are plotted on the calibration
curve and resulting curve may not be linear.
• This would be only if the output is proportional to input.
• Linearity is the measure of maximum deviation of these points from the
straight line. • The departure from the straight line relationship is non linearity,
but it is expressed as linearity of the instrument
.• This departure from the straight line could be due to non linear elements in
the measuring system or the elastic after effects of the mechanical system.
• • Linearity is expressed in many different ways: –
• Independent Linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line
so placed as to minimize the maximum deviation.
• Zero based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line
joining the origin and so placed as to minimize the maximum deviation.
• Terminal based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight
line joining both the end points of the curve.
Dynamic Characteristics
• Many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying quantities and
therefore, for such cases we must examine the dynamic relations
which exits between output and input.
• Normally done with the help of differential equations.
• Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute the
Dynamic Characteristics.
• It is used for study of behaviour of the system between the time that
output value changes and the time the value has settled down to its
steady state value.
Examples of Dynamic Measurement:
1.Accelerometers: Measuring the acceleration of a car as it speeds up
or slows down; the data reflects changes in motion in real time.
2.Pressure Transducers: Monitoring blood pressure in real-time during
physical activity, capturing variations as the person's heart rate
changes.
Important dynamic characteristics are
• Speed of Response
• Response Time
• Measuring Lag
• Frequency Response
• Bandwidth
• SNR
• Damping Factor
• Rise Time
• Fall Time
• Settling Time
• Fidelity,
• Dynamic Error,

If you don’t understand these derivation, please refer reference 1 note given in end.
Speed of Response
• It indicates how fast the input given to the measurement system pr an
instrument brings the output.
• It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.
Response Time
• It is defined as the time required by the system to settle to its final steady
state position after the application of the input.
Measuring Lag
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to
changes in the measured quantity.
The measuring lags are of two types:
• Retardation Type: In this case the response of the measurement system
begins immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
• Time Delay Lag: In this case the response of the measurement system
begins after a dead time after the application of the input. Fidelity: It is
defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes
in the measurand quantity without dynamic error.
Frequency Response
• When the analysis of the measurement system is done by plotting the
gain (output/input) wrt the frequency then the resulting response is
called Frequency Response.
• It is of two types: Gain vs Frequency (Magnitude Response) and Phase
Angle vs Frequency (Phase Response).
• The summation of the both – Bode Plot
Bandwidth
• Range of frequency over which an instrument is designed to operate
the output receiving the input signal or quantity with a constant gain.
• Calculated by magnitude response and unit is Hz.
• The quantity of the measurement system taken in the interval between
those frequencies where the power gain of the system has dropped to
one – half of its maximum value or voltage gain dropped by a factor of
0.707 (1/√2).
Errors in Measurement and Their Statistical
Analysis
• Error in Measurement
• Error of Measurement can be define difference between the actual value of a
quantity and the value obtained by a measurement.
• Repeating the measurement will improve (reduce) the random error (caused by
the accuracy limit of the measuring instrument) but not the systemic error
(caused by incorrect calibration of the measuring instrument).
1. Absolute Error
• Can be defined as the difference between the expected value (T.V.) of
the variable and the measured value (M.V.) of the variable.
e= absolute error
Yn= expected value
Xn= measured value

e = Yn – Xn
2. Relative Error (Percent of Error)
• Relative Error: The ratio of absolute error to the true value
• Relative Error (er) (as a fraction):

• Relative Percentage Error (% Error) (as Percentage %)

3. Relative Accuracy
• Accuracy: The degree of exactness of a measurement when
compared to the expected value of the variable being measured.
• Example: Assume the true value, m = 5.90 kg
• Reading from instrument A, m = 5.82 kg
• Reading from instrument B, m = 5.91 kg
• Conclusion: Instrument B is more accurate.

• It is frequently more describe to express measurements in terms

of Relative Accuracy (A) rather than error,

• Accuracy expressed as percent accuracy (a),

 • Use of Voltmeter and Ammeter.
• May be Analog or Digital type.
• Analog Voltmeter and Ammeter -You
Know It!!!
Measurement • In case of analog or pointer indicating
of Voltage and ammeter and voltmeter, there are two
Current basic types of instruments depending
upon the operation:

• – Moving Iron Instrument / Meter

• – Moving Coil Instrument / Meter
Reference 2