Introduction
Oscillation: an effect that repeatedly and regularly fluctuates
about the mean value
Oscillator: circuit that produces oscillation
These signals serve a variety of purposes such as Communications
systems, digital systems (including computers), and test equipment
make use of oscillators
Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF signals to IF
signals in a receiver;
Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
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Oscillators
Oscillators are circuits that generate periodic signals
An oscillator converts DC power from the power supply into AC
signal power spontaneously - without the need for an AC input
source
Sine wave
Square wave
Sawtooth wave
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Classification of Oscillators
1. According to the waveforms generated:
(a) Sinusoidal oscillator (b) Relaxation oscillator
2. According to the fundamental mechanisms involved:
(a) Negative resistance oscillators (b) Feedback oscillators
3. According to the frequency generated:
(a) Audio frequency oscillator (AFO): up to 20 kHz
(b) Radio frequency oscillator (RFO): 20 kHz to 30 MHz
(c) Very high frequency (VHF) oscillator: 30 MHz to 300 MHz
(d) Ultra high frequency (UHF) oscillator: 300 MHz to 3 GHz
(e) Microwave frequency oscillator: above 3 GHz
4. According to the type of circuit used, sine-wave oscillators may be
classified as
(a) LC tuned oscillator , (b) RC phase shift oscillator.
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Conditions for Oscillations (Barkhausen Criteria)
+ V
Vs A(f) Vo
+
Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)
Vo AV A(Vs V f ) and V f Vo
Vo A
Vs 1 A
If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero if the denominator to
be zero. Is that loop gain A=1 which implies that
Barkhausen Criteria:
The condition Aβ=1 is known as Barkhausen criteria. It implies
(1) Magnitude of the loop gain Aβ = 1
(2) Phase shift over the loop = 0 0r 360 degrees.
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Mechanism for start of Oscillation
The oscillator circuit is set into oscillations by a random variation
caused in the base current due to noise component or a small
variation in the d.c. power supply.
The noise components in a transistor will cause some small signal at
the output of the amplifier. Even when no external signal is applied
The output signal caused by noise signals will be predominantly at
fo.
If a small fraction (beta ) of the output signal is fed back to the
input with proper phase relation, then this feedback signal will be
amplified by the amplifier. If the amplifier has a gain of more than
1/β, then the output increases and thereby the feed back signal
becomes larger.
This process continues and the output goes on increasing. But as
the signal level increases, the gain of the amplifier decreases and at
a particular value of output, the gain of the amplifier is reduced
exactly equal to 1/β. Then the output voltage remains constant at
frequency fo, called frequency of oscillation.
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Practical considerations
conditions for maintaining
oscillations are:
1. |Aβ| = 1
2. Φ = 0 or 360 degrees.
In all practical circuits | Aβ |> 1(for positive feedback) so that the
amplitude of oscillation will continue to increase without limit but such
an increase in amplitude is limited by the amplitude limiter.
| Aβ |> 1( Oscillations are divergent)
| Aβ |< 1 (Oscillations are convergent)
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Comparison Between Positive and Negative Feed Back:
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Types of oscillators
1. RC (Low frequency) oscillators
Wien Bridge
Phase-Shift
2. LC (High Frequency) oscillators
Hartley
Colpitts
Crystal
The Wien-bridge RC oscillator is used in the range of 5 Hz to about 1
MHz, i.e., in low frequency applications like audio generators.
LC oscillators can be used for frequencies from 1 MHz to 500 MHz
and they are called Radio Frequency (RF) oscillators.
The quartz crystal oscillators are used whenever accuracy and
stability of oscillation are required.
