Chapter 7: A View of the

Cell
 The Discovery of Cells
oCell: The basic unit of living organisms.
o Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Described
living cells by looking through a simple
microscope.
o Compound Microscope: has a series of
lenses that magnify an object in steps.
Used by Robert Hooke to study cork.
o All happened in 1660’s
 Cell Theory
• Schleiden and Schwann concluded that all
plants and animals were made up
completely of cells

The Cell Theory states that:

– All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
– The cell is the basic unit of organization
in all organisms.
– All cells come from pre-existing cells
 The Electron Microscope
• Capable of magnifying a specimen
500,000X their actual size.
• Allows us to see structures within a
cell!
• Several different kinds
of electron microscopes
now exist.
Weevil, mag. by
-TEM, SEM electro
microscope
 Two Cell Types
• There are two basic cell types that
you need to be aware of
1. Prokaryotes: Cells that lack internal
membrane-bound structures
• Ex. Bacteria
 Two Cell Types
2. Eukaryotes: Contain membrane-
bound structures.
• Many chemical rxns. can occur
simultaneously because of
compartmentalization.
• These membrane-bound structures are
called organelles
• Ex. Animal cells, plant cells
Eukaryotic Cell Parts
• Divided into the
nucleus and
cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm = portion
of the cell outside the
nucleus
 Nucleus
• The nucleus contains almost
all the cell’s DNA
• Controls protein production
• Nucleus is surrounded by a
nuclear envelope
• Has a double membrane and
has large pores for rapid
transport of materials.
 Nucleus

oContains chromatin: DNA bound to

proteins
oChromatin is simply strands of DNA
oWhen the cell divides, chromatin
condenses, or becomes packed into a small
area. When this happens, the chromatin is
then called a chromosome.
 Nucleus

oNucleolus: An
organelle within
the nucleus that
produces
ribosomes.
The Nucleus
 Ribosomes
• Produce proteins and enzymes
• Found in the cytoplasm and nucleus
• Like a small machine in a factory
• Site of Protein Synthesis
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Internal
membrane where
lipids, proteins
and other
materials are
assembled and
exported out of
the cell
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
2 types of E.R
1. Rough ER: portion of the ER the
makes proteins- rough because
ribosomes on it
2. Smooth ER: portion of ER without
ribosomes on it.
-Contains enzymes
that perform tasks like
membrane synthesis and
detox. of drugs
 Golgi Apparatus
• Organelle that
changes, sorts and
packages proteins
from ER
• Does this so they can be
stored or shipped out
of the cell
 Lysosomes

• Small organelles filled

with enzymes
• Janitors of the cell
• Break down lipids,
carbohydrates, proteins
into small molecules
that can be used by the
rest of the cell
 Vacuoles
• Found in
plants and
some animals
• Store things
(like water,
salts, proteins)
• Has a sac-like
structure
 Vacuoles
•In plants:
•Usually one single, large central vacuole
filled with liquid
• Pressure makes it possible to
support heavy structures like leaves
and flowers

•In single-celled organisms:

•Contractile Vacuole = pumps excess
water out of the cell
 Mitochondria
“The Powerhouse”
• Organelles in which food molecules are
broken down (glucose) to produce energy
(ATP).
– Shaped like tiny sausages.
– Inner membrane forms long, narrow folds
called cristae (folds increase surface area)
– (site of Cellular Respiration!)
 Chloroplasts
“The Solar Power Plant”
• Transform light energy into
chemicals that can be used to
produce food molecules.
– Mitochondria then change food
molecules into energy.
– Chloroplasts are located in the cells
of plants and some green one-celled
organisms.
 Cytoskeleton
• A network of thin, fibrous elements that
provide support for organelles and helps
the cell maintain its shape.
– Microtubules: Thin, hollow cylinders
of a protein called tubulin.
– Microfilaments: Thin, solid protein
fibers called actin.
– Both work together to provide support.
 Structures for Locomotion
• Cilia: Short, numerous, hair-like
projections from the plasma membrane of
the cell.
– Often beat synchronously(at the same
time) to produce motion.
• Flagella: Long projections that move in a
whip-like motion to produce movement.
- Used by unicellular organisms
Structures for Locomotion
Structures for Locomotion
 Cell Boundaries
• All cells surrounded by a cell membrane
– thin flexible barrier
– It is selecvtively permeable: only
certain molecules are let in or out at
any given time.
–To promote homeostasis
 The Plasma Membrane

-Found in both prokaryotes

and eukaryotes.
• Composed of a Phospholipid Bilayer:
double layered sheet of 2 lipids
– form the main structure of the plasma
membrane.
– Proteins are also embedded in this
layer
 The Plasma Membrane Structure
• Transport and Membrane-bound proteins:
-Proteins found embedded in phospholipid
bilayer, they also help give structural support.
– They let only certain molecules through
– Often span from the outside to the inside of the
cell.
– They help connect the phospholipid bilayer to the
interior framework of the cell.
Cell Membrane
Structure
 The Plasma Membrane Structure

• Model is called the fluid mosaic model

The lipid layers are fluid and proteins
can move like fluid and yet still create
a barrier against the outside environment.
• [Link]
 Cell Wall
• Plant, fungi, most
bacteria, and other cells
have a cell wall.
• Provides support and
protection
• Located outside the
plasma membrane
• Not selectively
permeable
• Cell Wall is made of
cellulose.
Cell plate is the structure found inside the
dividing plant cells .

Centrioles- only found in animal cells and assist with

cell division.

Centromeres-where the two chromatids are

held together and form an X shape.
 Diffusion

Concentration = mass of solute

per volume solvent
-Ex: If you dissolved 12g of salt in 3L of water,
the concentration would be 12g/3L = 4g/L

• Diffusion = particles move

from an area of high
concentration to an area of low
concentration
 Diffusion
• Equilibrium: when the
concentration of the solute is the
same all over
• Substances diffuse across
membrane both ways-
Concentration doesn’t change!
• No energy is used!
 Osmosis

• Diffusion of
water through
a selectively
permeable
membrane
 How osmosis
works…..
Water wants to balance things out…
 Types of Solutions
• Isotonic Solution: Concentration of solutes is
the same inside and outside the cell.
– No osmosis occurs (no concentration change)
– A dynamic equilibrium is occurring: molecules are
moving back and forth across membrane but there
is no concentration gradient created.
• Dynamic: Movement or change
• Equilibrium: An equality or balance
 Types of Solutions
• Hypotonic Solution: The concentration of
solutes is less outside the cell than inside the
cell.
• Remember: we call the cell’s environment the
solution that it is in.
– Water moves by osmosis into the cell!
– The cell tends to swell and can burst!
 Types of Solutions
• Hypertonic Solution: The concentration of
solutes is more outside the cell than inside the
cell.
• Osmosis causes water to flow out of the cell.
– Cells will shrink or shrivel for this reason.
Comparison of Hypo, Iso, and Hypertonic Solutions

Isotonic = same strength

Hypertonic = above strength (not diluted)
Hypotonic = below strength (diluted)
 Osmotic Pressure
• Pressure exerted movement of
water in or out of the cell
• Occurs on the hypertonic side of
the membrane (side with the higher
solute concentration)
 Not in Book!!
• Turgor Pressure: The pressure in a plant cell
that results from water flowing into the cell.
– Associated with a hypotonic solution.
– Gives plants their shape and ability to stand up.
Without it they wilt!
 Not in Book!!
Plasmolysis: Loss of pressure within a cell
causing the cell to shrivel
•Associated with a hypertonic solution
•In plants turgor pressure is lost (wilting occurs),
animal cells just shrivel
Cell Membrane Proteins*
• Carrier Proteins: Span through plasma membrane
(transport proteins) and change shape to help
molecules get from one side to the other.
– Their exposed ends open and close like a gate.
• Channel Proteins: Span through plasma membrane
(transport proteins) and create an opening where
molecules can pass through.
– They do not change shape.

Carrier

Channel
 Passive Transport
• Passive Transport: the process of particles
moving through a membrane with no
assistance or energy from the cell or its parts.
– Water, lipids, and some lipid soluble substances can move
by passive transport.
• Also O, N, and CO2
– Molecules can move through channel proteins or through
membrane itself.
 Facilitated Diffusion
• protein channels in the membrane
“help” molecules pass through
• Allow particular substances to
cross membrane
• No energy needed!
 Active Transport
• Uses energy to move molecules from low to
high concentration.
• Proteins act as pumps to move molecules
• Moves substances AGAINST the
concentration gradient
• Molecules move the opposite way they would
naturally move due to diffusion
 Types of Active
Transport
• Endocytosis: process of taking
material into the cell through pockets
in the membrane
• Exocytosis: when a large amount of
material is released from the cell
Types of Endocytosis

1. Phagocytosis: cell eating, cell

engulfs another
2. Pinocytosis: cell drinking, take
up liquid from the surrounding
environment
 Cell Diversity
• Unicellular Organisms:
single celled organism
– Examples: yeast, algae,
bacteria
 Multicellular Organisms

• Organisms made up of
many cells
• Cells must communicate
and cooperate
 Multicellular organisms
• Cell specialization: cells develop in an
organism in different ways to perform
different tasks
– Ex. Red blood cells, pancreatic cells
 Levels of
Organization
• Cells – Tissues --Organs ---Organ System
 Cell Communication: What do cells have
to say to each other?

• Cells communicate about:

– Reproduction – even cells need to find a mate
– Nutrient availability – bacteria let others know
that times are tough so they can prepare
– Growing – cells need to be told when it is tome to
grow up and start a family!
– Movement – your nerve cell signals your muscle
cells to move
 Cell Communication: Cell Junctions

• Cell Junctions are found between both animal

and plant cells.
– They allow molecules to pass readily between
adjacent cells without crossing the plasma
membrane.
– This is communication by direct contact. Can you
think of any examples?
 Cell Communication: Cell – Cell
Recognition

• Two animal cells may communicate by

interaction between molecules sticking out
from their surfaces
– The molecules sticking out from Cell 1 are like
puzzle pieces that fit the molecules sticking out
from Cell 2
 Cell Communication: Synaptic Signaling

• Synaptic signaling occurs between two nerve cells and can

result in muscle movement.
• Synaptic signaling is only found in animals
– First a nerve cell releases molecules called neurotransmitters – these
travel a very, very short distance through the synapse to signal their
target cell (often another nerve cell) to perhaps move your big toe.
Cell Communication: Hormonal Signaling

• Both plants and animals use chemicals called hormones for

signaling at great distances (ex. from the brain to the heart)
• In animals, specialized cells release hormone molecules into
blood vessels so they can travel to the needed parts of the
body – kind of like a transit system!
– The hormone molecules diffuse through the blood vessels
once they have reached their destination!
 Cell Communication: Receptor Proteins

• The molecules involved in synaptic and

hormonal signaling aren’t recognized by just
any cell.
• Once they are released, they have to be
recognized by their targeted cell, or else every
cell could get a dose of those molecules –
things could go haywire!
• To take care of this problem, the targeted cells
have receptor proteins
 Receptor Proteins
• Receptor proteins are embedded in the plasma
membrane of cells.
• They are shaped to only bind to certain molecules
– certain hormones and neurotransmitters specific
to that cell

Once the molecule has bonded to the receptor

protein, various reactions begin to occur –
depending on the molecule and the cell type