Lecture Notes
Fluid Mechanics
#Credits
Lecture #04 – Dimensional and
Model Analysis
Lecture #04B – Model Analysis
First Semester 2023
Dar es salaam Maritime Institute
Marine Engineering Department
By Eng. Anna Msongela (Msc.)
Lecture Outline
4.5 Model Analysis - Introduction
4.6 Similitude
4.7 Forces Influencing Hydraulic Phenomena
4.8 Dimensionless numbers and their significance
4.9 Model (or similarity) Laws
4.10 Reynolds Model Law
4.11 Froude Model Law
4.12 Euler Model Law
4.13 Weber Model Law
4.14 Match Model Law
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4.5 Model Analysis Introduction
Model analysis
In order to know about the performance of the hydraulic
structures (e.g. dams, spillways etc.) or hydraulic machines
(e.g. turbines, pumps etc.) before actually constructing or
manufacturing them, their models are made and tested to
get the required information.
The model is the small scale replica of the actual structure
or machine.
The actual structure or machine is called Prototype.
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4.5 Model Analysis Introduction
Model analysis
The models are not always smaller than the prototype, in
some cases a model may be even larger or of the same size
as prototype depending upon the need and purpose (e.g. the
working of a wrist watch or a carburetor can be studied in
a large scale model).
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4.5 Model Analysis Introduction
Advantages of model testing:
The following are the advantages of model analysis:
1. The model tests are quite economical and convenient
(because the design, construction and operation of a
model may be changed several times if necessary, without
increasing much expenditure, till most suitable design is
obtained).
2. With the use of models the performance of hydraulic
structures/hydraulic machines can be predicted in advance.
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4.5 Model Analysis Introduction
Advantages of model testing:
3. While designing a particular portion of the structure if
clear cut analytical and reliable method is not available then
in such cases it becomes absolutely necessary to know about
the safety and reliability of such parts which is possible by
means of model testing.
4. Model testing can be used to detect and rectify the defects
of an existing structure which is not functioning properly.
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4.5 Model Analysis Introduction
Applications of the model testing:
Following are the important fields where applications
of the model testing is of great use:
1. Civil engineering structures such as dams, spillways, weirs, canals
etc
2. Flood control, investigation of silting, and scour in rivers, irrigation
channels.
3. Turbines, pumps and compressors.
4. Design of harbours, ships and submarines.
5. Aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
6. Tall buildings (to predict the wind loads on buildings, the stability
characteristics of the buildngs and airflow patterns in their vicinity
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4.6 Similitude
1. To find solutions to numerous complicated problems in
hydraulic engineering and fluid mechanics model studies
are usually conducted.
-In order that results obtained in the model studies represent
the behaviour of prototype, the following three similarities
must be ensured between the model and the prototype.
2. Geometric similarity,
2. Kinematic similarity, and
3. Dynamic similarity
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4.6 Similitude
1. Geometric similarity:
For geometric similarity to exist between the model and
the prototype, the ratios of corresponding lengths in the
model and in the prototype must be same and the included
angles between two corresponding sides must be the same.
Models which are not geometrically similar are known as
geometrically distorted models.
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4.6 Similitude
1. Geometric similarity:
…(4.8)
…(4.9)
…(4.10)
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4.6 Similitude
2. Kinematic similarity:
Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion.
If at the corresponding points in the model and in the
prototype, the velocity or acceleration ratios are same and
velocity or acceleration vectors point in the same direction,
the two flows are said to be kinematically similar
Let
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4.6 Similitude
2. Kinematic similarity:
and Corresponding values at the corresponding points of
fluid velocity and acceleration in the prototype.
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4.6 Similitude
3. Dynamic similarity:
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces.
The flows in the model and in prototype are dynamically
similar if at all the corresponding points, identical types of
forces are parallel and bear the same ratio.
In dynamic similarity, the force polygons of the two flows
can be superimposed by change in force scale
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4.6 Similitude
3. Dynamic similarity:
…(4.11)
…(4.12)
…(4.13)
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4.7 Forces Influencing Hydraulic Phenomena
The forces which may affect/influence the flow
characteristics of a problem are:
1. Inertia force
It always exists in the fluid flow problem (and hence it is
customary to find out the force ratios with respect to inertia
force).
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the
flowing fluid and acts in the direction opposite to the
direction of acceleration.
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4.7 Forces Influencing Hydraulic Phenomena
2. Viscous force
It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is to
play an important role.
It is equal to the product of shear stress (τ) due to viscosity
and surface area of the flow.
3. Gravity force (Fg):
It is present in case of open surface flow.
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to
gravity
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4.7 Forces Influencing Hydraulic Phenomena
4. Pressure force (Fp):
This type of force is present in case of pipe flow.
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-
sectional area of the flowing fluid.
5. Surface tension force (Fs ):
It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of
surface of the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic force (Fe):
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the
flowing fluid.
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
The dimensionless numbers (also called non-dimensional
parameters) are obtained by dividing the inertia force
(which always exists when any mass in motion) by viscous
force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension
force or elastic force.
The important dimensionless numbers are :
1. Reynolds number
2. Froude’s number
3.Euler’s number
4. Weber’s number
5. Mach’s number
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.1. Reynolds number (Re)
…...(4.14)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.1. Reynolds number (Re)
…...(4.15)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.1. Reynolds number (Re)
Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of the
inertia to the viscous forces occurring in the flow systems.
This number is taken as the criterion of dynamic similarity in the
flow situations where the viscous forces predominate; examples
being:
(i) Motion of submarine completely under water,
(ii) Low velocity motion around automobiles and aeroplanes,
(iii) Incompressible flow through pipes of smaller sizes, and
(iv) Flow through low speed turbomachines
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.2. Froude’s number (Fr )
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force and the
gravity force.
Eqn. 4.14)
..(4.16)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.2. Froude’s number (Fr )
Froude’s number governs the dynamic similarity of the
flow situations; where gravitational force is most
significant and all other forces are comparatively
negligible, examples being:
(i) Flow over notches and weirs,
(ii) Flow over the spillway of a dam,
(iii) Flow through open channels, considering waves and
jumps, and
(iv) Motion of ship in rough and turbulent sea.
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.3. Euler’s number (Eu)
.it is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertial
force to the pressure force.
Eqn. 4.14)
Eqn. (4.17)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.3. Euler’s number (Eu)
The Euler number is important in the flow
problems/situations in which a pressure gradient exists:
examples being:
(i) Discharge through orifices, mouthpieces and sluices,
(ii) Pressure rise due to sudden closure of valves,
(iii) Flow through pipes, and
(iv) Water hammer created in penstocks.
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.4. Weber Number (We)
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force
to the surface tension force.
Eqn. 4.14)
..(4.18)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.4. Weber Number (We)
This number assumes importance in the following flow
situations:
(i) Capillary movement of water in soils,
(ii) Flow of blood in veins and arteries, and
(iii) Liquid atomisation
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.5. Match Number (M)
It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force to the
elastic force.
Eqn. 4.19)
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4.8 Dimensionless Numbers And Their
Significance
4.8.5. Match Number (M)
The Mach number is important in compressible flow problems at high
velocities, such as high velocity flow in pipes or motion of high-speed
projectiles and missiles
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4.9 Model (or Similarity) Laws
To ensure dynamic similarity between the model and
prototype it is necessary that the ratio of the corresponding
forces acting at the corresponding points in the model and
prototype be made equal.
It implies that dimensionless numbers should be same for
the model as well as the prototype; this condition is
difficult to be satisfied for all the dimensionless numbers.
Hence models are designed on the basis of the force which
is dominating in the flow situation.
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4.9 Model (or Similarity) Laws
The laws on which the models are designed for dynamic
similarity are called model or similarity laws; these are:
1. Reynolds model law,
2. Froude model law,
3. Euler model law,
4. Weber model law, and
5. Mach model law.
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4.10. REYNOLDS MODEL LAW
In flow situations where in addition to inertia, viscous
force is the other predominant force, the similarity of flow
in the model and its prototype can be established if
Reynolds number is same for both the systems.
This is known as Reynolds law and according to this law
...(4.20)
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4.10. REYNOLDS MODEL LAW
...(4.21)
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Example
An oil of specific gravity 0.92 and viscosity 0.03 poise is
to be transported at the rate of 2500 litres/sec. through a
1.2 m diameter pipe. Tests were conducted on a 12 cm
diameter pipe using water at . If the viscosity of water at is
0.01 poise, find:
(i) Velocity of flow in the model;
(ii) Rate of flow in the model.
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Example
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Example
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
When the gravitational force can be considered to be the
only predominant force which controls the motion in
addition to the inertia force, the similarity of the flow in
any two such systems can be established if the Froude’s
number for both the systems is the same. This is known as
Froude Model Law.
Some of the phenomena for which the Froude model law
can be sufficient criterion for dynamic similarity to be
established in the model and the prototype are:
(i) Free surface flows such as flow over spillways, sluices etc.;
(ii) Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle;
(iii) Where waves are likely to be formed on the surface;
(iv) Where fluids of different mass densities flow over one another
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.22)
As the value of g at the site of model testing will be practically the
same as at the site of the proposed prototype, therefore, and the eqn.
(4.22) becomes:
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.23)
eqn. (4.24)
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.25)
eqn. (4.26)
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.27)
eqn. (4.28)
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.29)
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.30)
eqn. (4.31)
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4.11. FROUDE MODEL LAW
eqn. (4.32)
eqn. (4.33)
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Example
(a) With Froude’s number as the criterion of dynamic
similarity for a certain flow situation, work out the scale
factors for velocity, time, discharge, acceleration, force,
work and power in terms of the scale factor for length.
(b) A geometrically similar model of spillway is to be laid to
a scale of 1 in 50. Calculate the velocity ratio, discharge ratio
and acceleration ratio.
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Example
.
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4.12. EULER MODEL LAW
In a fluid system where pressure forces alone are the
controlling forces in addition to the inertia force, the
dynamic similarity is obtained by equating the Euler
number for both the model and its prototype. This is
known as Euler model law. According to this law:
eqn. (4.34)
eqn. (4.34) we get:
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4.12. EULER MODEL LAW
. eqn. (4.35)
eqn. (4.36)
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Example
In an aeroplane model of size of its prototype the pressure
drop is . The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding
pressure drop in the prototype. Take: Density of air = ;
Density of water ; Viscosity of air ; Viscosity of water
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Example
.
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Example
.
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4.13 Weber Model Law
In a fluid system where surface tension effects predominate
in addition to inertia force, the dynamic similarity is
obtained by equating the Weber number for the model and
its prototype, which is known as Weber model law.
According to this law:
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4.13 Weber Model Law
.
eqn. (4.37)
Weber model law is applied in the following flow situations:
(i) Flow over weirs involving very low heads;
(ii) Very thin sheet of liquid flowing over a surface;
(iii) Capillary waves in channels;
(iv) Capillary rise in narrow passages;
(v) Capillary movement of water in soil
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4.14 Match Model Law
When in any fluid system only the forces resulting from
elastic compression are significant in addition to inertial
force, then the dynamic similarity between the model and
its prototype may be achieved by equating the Mach
numbers, which is known as Mach model law.
According to this law:
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4.14 Match Model Law
The similitude based on Mach model law finds application
in the following:
(i) Aerodynamic testing;
(ii) Phenomena involving velocities exceeding the speed of sound;
(iii) Hydraulic model testing for the cases of unsteady flow, especially
water hammer problems; and
(iv) Under-water testing of torpedoes.
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Example
(Model testing of ships). A 1: 20 model of a naval ship
having a submerged area of and length 8 metres has a total
drag of 20 N when towed through water at a velocity of 1.5
m/s. Calculate the total drag on the prototype when moving at
the corresponding speed. Use the relation
for calculating the skin resistance. The value of Cf is given
by, . Take kinematic viscosity of water (or sea
water) as 0.01 stoke and the specific weight of water (or sea
water) as .
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Example
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Example
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Example
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Example
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-End-PART 2
Thank You
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