Soil composition

 Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management.

 While soil minerals and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is
what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake.

 Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live
in the soil need air to undergo the biological processes that release
additional nutrients into the soil.

 The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air.

 The typical soil consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter,

20-30% water, and 20-30% air. These percentages are only generalizations
at best.

 In reality, the soil is very complex and dynamic.

 The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on

numerous factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil
type.
The solid phase of soil, which includes minerals and organic matter,
are generally stable in nature.
Yet, if organic matter is not properly managed, it may be depleted from
the soil.
The liquid and gas phases of the soil, which are water and air
respectively, are the most dynamic properties of the soil.
The relative amounts of water and air in the soil are constantly
changing as the soil wets or dries.
Soil minerals (inorganic constituents of soil)
 Mineral occurrences in soil environments are the result of inheritance from parent materials,
precipitation from soil solution or alteration of existing minerals into new phases.
 Climatic changes have a paramount effect in these processes and in the overall distribution of
minerals in soils of different regions, different soil horizons, and even different soil fractions.
 Therefore, the mineralogical composition of an individual soil is determined mostly by the make-up
of the parent material(s), and the intensity and duration of the weathering regime.

Classification and Distribution of Minerals

 Minerals are divided into eight classes depending upon their chemical composition, and specifically
their dominant anion or anionic group.
 The classes include: • native elements; • sulfides; • oxides and hydroxides • carbonates, nitrates,
and borates; • sulfates, chromates, and molybdates; • phosphates, arsenates, and vanadates; and
• silicates.
 Soil minerals are also referred to as primary and secondary minerals.

 Primary minerals have not experienced significant chemical or structural alteration since their crystallization
within igneous or metamorphic rocks or their deposition in sedimentary rocks.
 They are inherited from the parent material, and are usually found in the sand and silt fraction of soils.
Common primary minerals in soil environments include: silicates, oxides of iron (Fe), zircon (Zr) and titanium
(Ti), and phosphates (P).
 Secondary minerals are re-crystallized or transformed products of the chemical breakdown and/or alteration
of primary minerals under ambient conditions.
 Secondary minerals are mainly found in the clay and fine-silt fractions because the particle size of primary
minerals usually decreases during weathering.
 Typical secondary minerals found in soils include alumino-silicates, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates, sulfates,
and amorphous minerals.
 The separation of soil minerals in primary and secondary classes is not necessarily mutually exclusive since
some of the minerals can occur in both classes (quartz, mica, carbonates).
Sulfides Minerals
 Pyrite ( FeS ) is the most common mineral of this group, although it is found only in a few soils.
 It forms under prolonged anaerobic conditions typical in current-day or ancient wetlands, which explains its
common association with coal deposits.
 Pyrite is unstable and weathers readily into other sulfate minerals and sulfuric acid under oxidizing conditions.
 The released acidity constitutes a serious environmental problem in reclaimed coal-mined areas and in drained
pyritic soils.

Oxides and Hydroxides

 The most common soil occurrences of this group are Fe and Al minerals, often refer to as sesquioxides.
 They exhibit amphoteric surface charge properties depending on pH conditions.
 They also act as chemical binding agents playing an important role in soil aggregation and structural formation.
 The presence and abundance of Fe-minerals exert a significant influence on the color of the soil due to their
pigmentation properties.
 Under oxidizing conditions, they exhibit brownish-yellow to bright-red hues, while under reducing conditions
they turn gray due to 3+ Fe to 2+ Fe transitions.
 Birnessite and lithiophorite are the most prevalent Mn soil minerals.
 They are often associated with Feoxide minerals.
 Another group of minerals found in small quantities in soils includes titanium oxides, such as rutile, anatase,
and ilmenite.
 They are usually found in sand and silt fractions as common accessory minerals of igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
 Because of their increased weathering stability they are frequently used as pedogenic indicators of soil
maturity and uniformity.

Halides, Sulfates and Carbonates

 These mineral groups contain some of the most soluble soil minerals and are easily broken down by physical
and chemical weathering.
 Therefore, they occur mainly in arid/semiarid regions or in immature soils where weathering is minimal.
 Halite (a mineral within the halide group), gypsum, calcite, and dolomite constitute the most common soil
occurrences.
 Their solubility decreases in the anionic sequence Cl > SO > CO . Halite is found only in salt affected soils.
 Gypsum is also common in saline soils either under arid or hydromorphic conditions, but it could also form in
weathering interfaces where sulfide and carbonate minerals dissolve.
 Calcite and dolomite, while prevalent in arid and semiarid climatic zones can also be
found in more diverse soil environments where the dissolution of calcareous parent
materials provides opportunities for secondary carbonate formation in lower soil depths.
 These minerals are also introduced in soil environments through land management
practices including liming.

Phosphates
 Phosphate minerals are found in only a few soils, with the orthophosphate ion ( 2 PO4 − )
forming a tetrahedron as the basic structural unit.
 Apatite is the most frequently reported phosphate mineral of igneous or sedimentary
origin.
 Along with their weathering products, usually Al- and Fe-phosphates, apatites are
considered a natural source of P for plants.
SILICATE Minerals
 The silicates, owing to their abundance on Earth, constitute the most important mineral
class.
 Approximately 25 percent of all known minerals and 40 percent of the most common
ones are silicates.
 The igneous rocks that make up more than 90 percent of Earth’s crust are composed of
virtually all silicates.

 The fundamental unit in all silicate structures is the silicon-oxygen (SiO4)4– tetrahedron.

 It is composed of a central silicon cation (Si4+) bonded to four oxygen atoms that are
located at the corners of a regular tetrahedron.
 The terrestrial crust is held together by the strong silicon-oxygen bonds of these
tetrahedrons.
 The silicates can be divided into groups according to structural configuration, which
arises from the sharing of one, two, three, or all oxygen ions of a tetrahedron.
 Silicates that are composed of infinite chains of tetrahedrons are called inosilicates;
single chains have a unit composition of SiO3 or Si2O6, whereas double chains contain a
silicon to oxygen ratio of 4:11.
 Phyllosilicates, or sheet silicates, are formed when three oxygen atoms are shared with
adjoining tetrahedrons.
 The resulting infinite flat sheets have unit composition Si2O5.

 In structures where tetrahedrons share all their oxygen ions, an infinite three-
dimensional network is created with an SiO2 unit composition.

 Minerals of this type are called framework silicates or tectosilicates.

Organic matter
A major agent determining the character of the entire soil profile is humus, which is generally concentrated in the
upper horizons. Brady (1974) has defined humus as:
“A complex and rather resistant mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous and colloidal
substances modified from the original plant tissues or synthesised by various soil organisms.”
It is principally the product of decay of surfacial organic debris (litter), together with the decomposition products
of roots within the uppermost soil horizons. In average soils, humus contains 4–6% organic substances, which, in
turn, are made of 85% dead matter, 8.5% living roots and rootlets and about 6.5% soil organisms.
The term SOM is generally used to represent the organic constituents in the soil, including undecayed plant and
animal tissues, their partial decomposition products, and the soil biomass. Thus, this term includes:
1. Identifiable, high-molecular-weight organic materials such as polysaccharides and proteins,
2. Simpler substances such as sugars, amino acids, and other small molecules,
3. Humic substances: humic substances include humic acid, fulvic acid, and humin, We can describe humic
substances as major components in the natural organic matter in soil
SOM is frequently said to consist of humic substances and nonhumic substances.
Nonhumic substances are all those materials that can be placed in one of the categories of discrete compounds
such as sugars, amino acids, fats and so on.
Soil organic matter - non-living components which are a heterogeneous mixture composed largely of products
resulting from microbial and chemical transformations of organic debris. Soil organic matter can exist in different
morphological patterns, which are the bases of the classification of so called forms and types of humus.
Unaltered materials - fresh and non-transformed components of older debris.
Transformed products - (humus) - bearing no morphological resemblance to the structures from which they
were derived. These transformed components are referred to as the humification process products.
Humic substances- a series of relatively high molecular weight, brown to black colored substances formed by
secondary synthesis reactions. The term is used as a generic name to describe tocolored material or its fractions
obtained on the basis of solubility characteristics:
Humic acids (HA)
Fulvic acids (FA)
Humins
Nonhumic substances- compounds belonging to known classes of biochemistry, such as:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Amino acids
HUMIC SUBSTANCES
 Humic substances are the components of humus and as such are high molecular weight compounds that together form the
brown to black hydrophilic, molecularly flexible, polyelectrolytes called humus.
 Many of the components of humus are heterogenous, relatively large stable organic complexes.
 They function to give the soil structure, porosity, water holding capacity, cation and anion exchange, and are involved in the
chelation of mineral elements.
 The elemental analysis of humic substances reveals that they are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and sulfur in complex carbon chains (aliphatic components that make up approximately 40%-50% of the total) C C C C and
4, 5, and 6 member carbon rings (aromatic components that make up 35-60% of the total) with C C, C N and C=O groupings
 Humic substances have been shown to contain a wide variety of molecular components. Some typical components are:
polysaccharides; fatty acids; polypeptides; lignins; esters; phenols; ethers; carbonyls; quinones; lipids: peroxides; various
combination of benzene, acetal, ketal, and lactol, and furan ringed compounds; and aliphatic (carbon chains) compounds.
 Preliminary understandings about how humic substances are formed is based on 4 published theories:

(1) Lignin modification,

(2) Quinone Amino Acid Interaction,
(3) Microbial Synthesis of Aromatics, and
(4) The Mallard Reaction (a sugar amino acid reaction sequence)
 (4) Each theory describes complicated biotic and abiotic reactions in which a variety of organic compounds, such as phenolic
compounds (eg. lignins), complex carbohydrates, and nitrogenous substances are resynthesized to form large complex
polymers.

 Fig. represents
 Major pathways proposed for the formation of soil humic substances where pathway 1 represents the reducing of sugars
and amino acids formed as by-products of microbial metabolism, presumed to be the only precursors of HS.
 Pathway 2 represents the so-called ‗polyphenol theory‘ which involves polyphenols and quinones derived from lignin or
synthesised by microorganisms (Pathway 3).
 Pathway 4 represents the so-called ‗lignin-protein theory‘ in which plant lignin acts as the main source of soil HS with the
involvement of amino compounds via microbial synthesis
HUMINS
 Humins are that fraction of humic substances which are not soluble in alkali (high pH) and
am not soluble in acid (low pH).
 Humins are not soluble in water at any pH.
 Humin complexes are considered macro organic (very large) substances because their
molecular weights (MW) range from approximately 100,000 to 10,000,000.
 In comparison the molecular weights of carbohydrates (complex sugars) range from
approximately 500 to 100,000.
 The chemical and physical properties of humins are only partially understood.
 Humins present within the soil is the most resistant to decomposition (slow to breakdown)
of all the humic substances.
 Some of the main functions of humins within the soil are to improve the soil's water holding
capacity, to improve soil structure, to maintain soil stability, to function as an cation
exchange system, and to generally improve soil fertility.
 Because of these important functions humin Is a key component of fertile soils.
HUMIC ACIDS
Humic acids (HAs) comprise a mixture of weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids
which are not soluble in water under acid conditions but are soluble in water under alkaline conditions.
Humic acids consist of that fraction of humic substances that are precipitated from aqueous solution when the pH is
decreased below 2.
Humic acids (HAs) are termed polydisperse because of their variable chemical features.
On average 35% of the humic acid (HA) molecules are aromatic (carbon rings), while the remaining components are
in the form of aliphatic (carbon chains) molecules.
The molecular size of humic acids (HAs) range from approximately 10,000 to 100,000. Humic acid (HA) polymers
readily bind clay minerals to form stable organic clay complexes.
Humic acids (HAs) readily form salts with inorganic trace mineral elements.
An analysis of extracts of naturally occurring humic acids (HAs) will reveal the presence of over 60 different mineral
elements present.
These trace elements are bound to humic add molecules in a form that can be readily utilized by various living
organisms. As a result humic acids (HAs) function as important ion exchange and metal complexing (chelating)
systems.
FULVIC ACIDS
 Fulvic acids (FAs) are a mixture of weak aliphatic and aromatic organic acids which are soluble in water at all pH conditions
(acidic, neutral and alkaline).Their composition and shape is quite variable.
 The size of fulvic acids (HFs) are smaller than humic adds (HAs), with molecular weights from approximately 1,000 to 10,000.
 Fulvic acids (FAs) have an oxygen content twice that of humic acids (HAs).
 They have many carboxyl ( COOH) and hydroxyl ( COH) groups, thus fulvic acids (FAs) are much more chemically reactive.
 The exchange capacity of fulvic acids (FAs) is more than double that of humic acids (HAs) due to the total number of carboxyl
( COOH) groups present. The number of carboxyl groups present in fulvic acids (FAs) ranges from 520 to 1120 cmol (H+)/kg.
 Fulvic acids collected from many different sources and analyzed, show no evidence of methoxy groups ( CH3) groups, they are
low in phenols, and are less aromatic compared to humic acids from the same sources.
 Because of the relatively small size of fulvic acid (FA) molecules they can readily enter plant roots, stems, and leaves. As they
enter these plant parts they carry trace minerals from plant surfaces into plant tissues.
 Fulvic acids (FAs) are key ingredients of high quality foliar fertilizers.
 Foliar spray applications containing fulvic acid (FA) mineral chelates, at specific plant growth stages, can be used as a primary
production technique for maximizing the plants productive capacity.
 Fulvic acids (FAs) are the most effective carbon containing chelating compounds known.
HUMATES
 Humates are metal (mineral) salts of humic (HAs) or fulvic acids (FAs) Within any humic
substance there are a large number of complex humate molecules.
 The formation of a humate is based on the ability of the carboxyl ( COOH) and hydroxyl
( OH) groups (on the outside of the polymers) to dissociate (expel) the hydrogen ion.
 Once the hydrogen ions are dissociated a negatively charged anion ( COO- or -CO-) results.
 Two of these anions can bind to positive metal cations, such as Iron (Fe++), copper (Cu++),
zinc (Zn++), calcium (Ca++), manganese (Mg++), and magnesium (Mg++).
 The simplified reaction ( COO- + Fe++ > > COOFe+ + H) proceeds to bind two anions,
frequently a COOH and a COH group. The humate composition of any one humic substance
is specific for that substance.
 Thus there exists a large variability in the molecular composition of different humic
substances.
 Humates from different mineral deposits would be expected to have their own unique
features.
Role of organic matter
1.Organic matte creates a granular condition of soil which maintains favorable condition of
aeration and permeability. 2.Water holding capacity of soil is increased and surface runoff,
erosion etc., are reduced as there is good infiltration due to the addition of organic matter.
3.Surface mulching with coarse organic matter lowers wind erosion and lowers soil
temperatures in the summer and keeps the soil warmer in winter.
4.Organic matter serves as a source of energy for the microbes and as a reservoir of nutrients
that are essential for plant growth and also hormones, antibiotics.
5.Fresh Organic matter supplies food for earthworms, ants and rodents and makes soil P
readily available in acid soils.
6.Organic acids released from decomposing organic matter help to reduce alkalinity in soils;
organic acids along with released CO2 dissolve minerals and make them more available.
7.Humus (a highly decomposed organic matter) provides a storehouse for the exchangeable
and available cations. 8.It acts as a buffering agent which checks rapid chemical changes in pH
and soil reaction.
Non Humic Substances
Organic Compounds Free from Nitrogen
 Nitrogen Free Aliphatic Compounds Carbohydrates are the most important representatives of this class of soil
organic substances.
 Plants and soil organisms depend upon them for their structural material, which eventually ends up as
important soil constituents.
 It is estimated that about 5–30% of the soil carbon exists as carbohydrates.
 They are so called because many of them (but by no means all) have a molecular formula which may be
summarised by: Cx(H2O)y, where x and y can be equal or different numbers (see glyceraldehyde formula
below).
 Carbohydrates are polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones.
 On hydrolysis, they again give only substances, which are either polyhydroxyketones or polyhydroxyaldehydes.
 The simplest molecule that fulfils this definition, besides displaying optical activity, which is one of the basic
properties of carbohydrates, is glyceraldehyde (a polyhydroxyaldehyde). It has the formula:
Soil carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates constitute 5 to 25% of the organic matter in most soils.
 Plant remains contribute carbohydrates in the form of simple sugars, hemicellulose, and cellulose,
but these are more or less decomposed by bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi, which in turn
synthesize polysaccharides and other carbohydrates of their own.
Significance of carbohydrates
 The significance of carbohydrates in soil aries largely from the ability of complex polysaccharides to
bind inorganic soil particles into stable aggregates.
 Carbohydrates also form complexes with metal ions, and they serve as building blocks for humus
synthesis.
 Some sugars may stimulate seed germination and root elongation.
 Other soil properties affected by polysaccharides include cation exchange capacity (attributed to
COOH groups of uronic acids), anion retention (occurrence of NH2 groups), and biological activity
(energy source for microorganisms)
Classification of Carbohydrates
 A key reaction of carbohydrates that may be used as a basis for a
general classification of the group is hydrolysis.

 Carbohydrates on hydrolysis, as it was mentioned before,

dissociate to simpler molecules having the same nature of being
polyhydroxyketones or polyhydroxyaldehydes.

 So if a carbohydrate does not hydrolyse to simpler molecules of

the said nature, it would be called a monosaccharide; so,
glyceraldehyde is a monosaccharide, as is glucose, fructose,
ribose, etc.
 The ending “-ose” is commonly used to indicate a carbohydrate.
Structural formulae of some monosaccharides are given in Fig
 A carbohydrate that hydrolyses to two monosaccharide
molecules is by analogy called a disaccharide.
 Thus sucrose, lactose and maltose are disaccharides (see Fig. 1).
 Similarly carbohydrates that hydrolyse to a large number of monosaccharides may be termed polysaccharides.
 An example is given here by starch, having the formula (C6H10O5)n. It hydrolyses to (n) monosaccharide molecules

according to the equation shown in Fig. 2

Fig. 1 Hydrolysis of sucrose Fig. 2 Hydrolysis of a polysaccharide

 Another way of classifying carbohydrates may be based on whether a carbohydrate has an aldehyde or a ketone group.
 In the former case, the carbohydrate may be called an aldose, while in the latter case the carbohydrate is called a ketose.
 The two groups resulting from this classification are corresponding isomeric groups having the same composition but
different structures. Examples are:
Nitrogen Free Aromatic Compounds
 It is known that numerous low molecular weight phenols
and quinones are liberated from dead vegetable matter.
 These may be utilised by fungi in building molecules with
greater number of aromatic rings.
 It is also known that fungi (during the decomposition of
lignin) produce extracellular phenol oxidases enzymes,
which catalyse the introduction of hydroxyl groups into
the phenol rings, giving rise to some aromatic soil
constituents.

Phenols
 Phenols form a class of aromatic compounds, the name of
a monohydric phenol (hydroxybenzene);
which is derived from “phen”– an old name of benzene.
b dihydric phenols: catechol
 In this class one or more OH-groups are directly linked to (left), resorcinol (middle), hydroquinone
(right);
the benzene nucleus.
c trihydric phenols
 Accordingly there may be mono-, di-, or tri-hydric phenols (trihydroxybenzenes):pyrogallol
(left),phloroglucinol (middle),
Quinones – The Colour Dispensers
 Quinones, known since early times in history as dyes, are responsible for many characteristic
colours in the plant kingdom. They often occur in the bark and roots of plants. Some fungi also owe
their brilliant colours to the presence of quinones in their tissues. Such colourations are by no
means limited to plants; quinones are also responsible for most of the dark colour pigmentation of
animals.
 For example, the natural colouring of sea urchins is due largely to naphthaquinones (see formula,
Fig. 2).
 Dark colourations of humus are, as it will be explained below, largely due to reactions of quinones
and their derivatives in soil. Quinones have a conjugated structure (see Figs 1 and 2) and are
reactive substances that often give Fig.
hydroxy derivatives:
2 Structure o-quinone,
of different quinones benzoquinone,
naphthaquinone, anthraquinone.

Fig. 1 Structure of
Nitrogenous Organic Compounds-Proteins and Amino Acids
 The most important nitrogenous organic compounds, found in soils, are proteins and amino acids.
 It is estimated that about 20–50% of organic nitrogen in soils exists as amino acids.
 These are compounds that contain carboxyl, –COOH and amino group, –NH 2.
 Thus many of them are neutral, but can react as acids or bases according to the prevailing conditions.
 Polymerisation of amino acids produce chain polymers known as polypeptides; very long chains of
polypeptides are known as proteins.
 Both proteins and amino acids persist in the soil by being absorbed on the surfaces of clay minerals or
being incorporated into other organic material.
 Proteins in soils ultimately break down, through bacterial or fungal action, into methane, CH 4; amines
(compounds similar to ammonia, NH3, in which a part or all the hydrogen has been replaced by
organic groups); urea, NH2–CO–NH2; carbon dioxide or water. Figure 1 summarizes the breakdown
series of the proteins.
 not only decomposition takes place; in some cases, bacteria may resynthesize the simple molecules
generated by protein decomposition.
 nitrogenous organic compounds in soils may exist as amino sugars, nucleic acids or any other
Fig. 1 Breakdown series of the proteins

Fig. 2 D-glucosamine
Nucleic acid
 is the name given to a substance found in all living cells. It may also occur in soil as a
complex high molecular weight biopolymer, the monomers of which are known as
nucleotides.
 Each of these nucleotides consists of three components: a nitrogenous heterocyclic base
(either a purine or a pyrimidine), a pentose sugar and a phosphate group.
 According to the pentose sugar in the chain forming the single nucleotide, two types of
nucleic acid are known.
 If the sugar was ribose (see Fig. 2.27) the acid would be called ribonucleic acid (RNA). In
case of deoxyribose (see Fig. 2.27),
the acid formed would be a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

Fig. Structures of ribose (left) and

Skeletal Nitrogen Substances
 These include cartilage of vertebrates and chitin of invertebrates.
 They are unlikely to decompose and persist in an almost unchanged state in the soil.
 Cartilage is largely made of a hardened mucous substance known as mucoprotein or glycoprotein.
 This is a covalently linked conjugate of a protein and a polysaccharide, whereby the latter forms
about 4 to 30% of the whole compound.
 Another mucoprotein that may form a gel in soil at a low pH comes from mammalian urine, where
it is most abundant.
 Chitin (the name is derived from the same Greek word meaning tunic, referring to hardness) is a
polymer made of a chain of an indefinite number of N-acetyl glucosamine groups (see FIG).
 It is one of the main components in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of insects and skeletal
parts of other arthropods.

Fig. Structural model of

chitin
Lipids
 They represent a diverse group of materials ranging from relatively simple compounds such as fatty acids to more
complex substances such as the sterols, terpens, polynuclear hydrocarbons, chlorophyll, fats, waxes, and resins.
 The bulk of the soil lipids occurs as the so-called fats, waxes, resins.
 In normal aerobic soil the lipids probably exist largely as remnants of plant and microbial tissues.
 From 2 to 6% of soil humus occurs as fats, waxes, resins.

 Lipids are esters of fatty acids with glycerol

 Animals and plant waxes are esters of higher acids with other higher alcohols. Other lipids
are compounds containing phosphorus or nitrogen or both.
 On hydrolysis, they yield the parent acids with glycerol, aliphatic alcohols, carbohydrates,
nitrogenous bases, or sterols.
 Lipids are physiologically active. Some compounds have a depressing effect on plant growth whereas others act
as growth hormones.
 Lipids are resistant to decomposition, but they are soluble in ordinary “fat” solvents such
as ether and chloroform.
Soil Organisms:
These are generally classified according to their biological activities in soils into producers, consumers,
and decomposers. Decomposers form the basis of the nutritive chain among the three groups. They
produce, by degradation of organic litter, the primary resources (CO2, N2, O2, etc.) used by the
producers to synthesise complex nutritive material, which in turn will be consumed by the group of
consumers.

All three groups work hand in hand to change and continuously develop the soil profile. Soil organisms may
also be classified according to their size into microfauna. Table illustrates the approximate distribution in
volume % of soil organisms in the organic fraction of an average soil.
Distribution of soil organisms
Macrofauna
Macrofauna living on and in the soil includes large
molluscs, beetles, large insect larvae, as well as
vertebrates like moles, rabbits, foxes, and badgers.
These normally bury deep in the soil and feed on
other smaller organisms. Moles in particular consume
a great deal of smaller soil dwellers.

Mesofauna
Soil dwellers of this category belong to four main
groups – nematodes, arthropods, annelids and
molluscs (see Fig.). Nematodes, the unsegmented
roundworms (also called eelworms) are about 0.5 to 1
mm in length. They are considered to be the smallest
soil fauna next to protozoa. In a soil block of 1 m2
surface area and 30 cm depth, 106 – 2×10 7 individuals
of these worms, with a total weight between 1 and 20
g may be present. They feed on plant debris, bacteria
and in some cases on protozoans.

Some of the common mesofauna in soils

Arthropods, as shown by Table 2, comprise of various categories.
 To these, we count acari (mites), colembola (springtails), myriapods (centipedes and millipedes), isopods (wood lice), beetles,
insect larvae, and termites.
 Among these categories, the mites and springtails are the most abundant, especially in acidic litter, where they may form 80%
of the soil organisms.
 Both mites and springtails feed on plant debris, bacteria and fungi.
 Ants and termites are most abundant in tropical soils, they are very active soil mixers.
 Earth pillars heaped by termites (termintaria) may reach several metres in height.

Table 2 Some data on small arthropods in soils

Annelida (ringed worms)
 is the name of the phylum to which the segmented earthworm, the leech, and the nereis belong.

 The Lumbricid worms (the earthworms) represent the first class of soil annelids.
 These occur in countless numbers in moist soils all over the world, emerging only at night and retreating under ground in the
morning.
 Darwin made their activities the object of a careful study and concluded: “it may be doubted if there are any other animals
which have played such an important part in the history of the world as these lowly organised creatures.”
 Indeed, the quantity of earth burrowed, mixed and brought up from below and deposited on the surface by these worms has
been estimated to be as high as 18 tons per acre per year, or, if spread out uniformly, about 3 cm in 10 years.
 The effects of worms on the soil include (beside bringing out deeper parts of the soil to the surface and exposing them to the
air) improving the drainage through the intricate net of burrows and adding, in the form of excretory waste, a great deal of
organic material to the soil.
 Their numbers in soils are estimated to be between 80 and 800, with a total weight of 40 to 400 grams per square metre.

 Megascolecides australis may be 3 m in length; it lives in burrows with volcano-shaped openings.

 The enchytraeid, or potworms, are the second class of soil annelids.
 They are smaller than the earthworms (0.1–5.0 cm) and have a thread-like appearance.
 Potworms feed on algae, fungi, bacteria, and other soil organic materials.
 They may attain numbers as high as 200 000 individuals per square metre.
Mesofaunal molluscs (2–20 mm),
Found in soils, include slugs and snails. Their numbers per square metre may range between 50 and 1 000. They feed on plants,
fungi, and faecal remains.

Microorganisms (Microfauna and Microflora)

These are mainly represented by four groups: bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. All four groups occur in great numbers in
soils (see Table 3).

Bacteria. These are normally unicellular organisms with cellular sizes between 0.0001 and 0.02 mm, being the smallest
organisms visible under the light microscope. They occur, due to their tremendous reproduction rates, in very high numbers
(about 1012–1015 m–2) mostly in water films surrounding the soil particles. According to their morphology, bacteria are
classified into three main classes: –

Eubacteria. This is the most representative class of bacteria and can be further subdivided into spherical bacteria (cocci) and
rod-shaped (bacilli) bacteria. Prominent examples of this group are the bacteria responsible for nitrogen fixation in the soil –
Nitrobacter. Table 3 Number of individuals and total weight of
microorganisms in a soil block of 1 m2 surface area and
30 cm depth
Chlamydobacteria (thread-shaped bacteri). In this class the bacterial cells are attached together by a filament
(filamenatum) into a linear chain similar to bead strings. Iron bacteria, playing a very important role in weathering and
diagenesis of sediments, belong to this class. –

Actinomycetes. In this class, rod-like cells are united to form stellar forms of bacteria, which in their vegetative stage of
reproduction, resemble fungi, consisting of fine branching filaments (about 1 µm in diameter). These morphological
peculiarities make it difficult to determine the real systematic position of these organisms, yet Actinomycetes are considered
as an independent class of the Bacteriophyta.

Another method of classification of bacteria is their susceptibility to staining by the so-called Gram solution (after the Danish
bacteriologist H. C. J. Gram, 1853–1938). Bacterial cells, stained by this solution, are called gram-positive; others are
collectively termed gram-negative.

The effects of bacteria on the soil

They decompose a wide range of materials under various conditions; examples of these range from oxidation of Fe2+ and
reduced sulphur compounds, under catalytic action of Thiobacillusferrooxidans, to the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules on
the roots of leguminous plants by Rhizobium sp.

Some bacteria are also capable of metabolising a wide range of chemicals, for instance Pseudomonas, a species capable of
metabolising pesticides.
Fungi.
 Mycophyta or Fungi are, like the bacteriophyta, in their overwhelming majority, parasitic; their carbon needs are dependent
on nutritive material synthesised by other organisms.
 They are characterised by filamentous structures (hyphae), which are about 0.5–10 µm in diameter and which grow into a
dense network called mycelium.
 Fungi live mostly in the surface layers of the soil, preferring acidic conditions, yet some of them live symbiotically in plant
tissues.
 They may, under favourable (acidic) conditions, be responsible for the decomposition of up to 80% of the soil organic matter.

Algae.
 These are photosynthetic organisms confined largely to the upper surface of the soil.
 They include Cyanophyceae (blue-green algae) and Chlorophyceae (green algae). Blue-green algae regulate the nitrogen cycle
in the soil.
Protozoa.
 A variety of protozoa, like rhizopoda, ciliates, and flagellates live in water films surrounding the soil particles.
 They control the numbers of bacteria and fungi on which they live.
 Table 2.4 shows the numbers and total weights of some protozoa in a soil block of 1 m2 surface area and 30 cm depth.

Table 4. Some data on soil protozoa

 Soil Water
 Water present in soil pores is called soil water.
 It is an important component of the soil which influences soil organisms and plant growth.
 It serves as a solvent and carrier of nutrients for plant growth.
 It regulates soil temperature and helps in chemical and biological activities of soil.
 It is essential for soil forming processes and weathering.
 The water is found in different forms in the soil.
 In soil the chief source of water is rain water.

 The total amount of water present in the soil is termed as ―holard, while the water among this,

available to the plants is called ―chesard, and the amount of water which cannot be absorbed by

plants is termed as ―echard.

 After the rains, a part of water drains away and not available to plants it is known as ―run-away
water.
The water present in the soil may be classified as follows-
1. Gravitational water (free water):
 This form of water is loosely held in soil (in macro pores) and move downwards freely under the influence of
gravity.
 Water in excess of the field capacity is termed gravitational water.
 It has a suction of less than 1/3 atmosphere
 The drainage or deep percolation loss of water results from downward movement of this gravity water.
 The plants can not absorb it as it drains out of root zone in short period of time.
2. Capillary water:
 Capillary water is held in the capillary pores (micro pores) with a suction ranging from 1/3 and 31
atmospheres.
 Capillary water is retained on the soil particles by surface forces.
 It is held so strongly that gravity cannot remove it from the soil particles.
 The availability of capillary water to plant roots depends on pore diameter which controls the pressure of
water. The narrower the capillary pore, lesser is the availability
3. Hygroscopic water:
 This form of soil water is held with a high suction ranging from 31 to 10000 atmospheres. It is held tightly on the surface
of soil colloidal particles.
 Generally, it includes first two molecular layers of water on soil particles. Plants can not absorb this form of water.
4. Chemically combined water:
 The water which remains chemically bound to the soil particle is called chemically combined water. This water is also
non- available to plants.
5. Run-away water:
 The water which run- off drown through slopes after rains is called running water or run- off water. This is also non-
available to plants.
Soil moisture constants
• These are of practical importance for irrigation and drainage management. These are also used to compare water
retention capacity of different soils.
1. Field capacity:
 If a soil is saturated, gravity water starts moving downwards. When all the gravitational water is drained away, and then the
wet soil is almost uniformly moist.
 The amount of water held by the soil at this stage is known as the field capacity of that soil. It is the capacity of the soil to
retain water against the downward pull of the force of gravity.
 At this stage only micro-pores or capillary pores are filled with water and plants absorb water for their use.
 At field capacity water is held with a suction of 1/3 atmosphere.

2. Wilting coefficient:
• As the soil water content decreases, a point is reached when the water is so firmly held by the soil particles that plant roots are
unable to extract water at a rate sufficient to meet the transpiration needs.
• The plant begins to wilt. At this stage even if the plant is kept in a saturated atmosphere it does not regain its turgidity and wilts
unless water is applied to the soil.
• The stage at which this occurs is termed the wilting point and the percentage amount of water held by the soil at this stage is
known as the wilting coefficient.
• Water at wilting coefficient is held with a force of 15 atmospheres.
3. Hygroscopic coefficient:
• The hygroscopic coefficient is the maximum amount of hygroscopic water absorbed by 100 g
of dry soil under standard conditions of humidity (50% relative humidity) and temperature
(15°C).
• This tension is equal to a force of 31 atmospheres.
• Water at this tension is not available to plant but may be available to certain bacteria.
Available water capacity:
• The available water is the difference in the amount of water at field capacity (- 0.3 bar) and
the amount of water at the permanent wilting point (- 15 bars).
Maximum water holding capacity:
• It is the amount of moisture in a soil when all of its pore spaces both micro and macro are
completely filled with water.
Soil Air
 Soil atmosphere is the gaseous phase of the soil.
 Soil air occupies the pores which are not occupied by the liquid.
 Soil air is a continuation of the atmospheric air.
 It is in constant motion from the soil pores into the atmosphere and from the atmosphere
into the pore space.
 The exchange of gases between the soil pore spaces and the atmospheric air is known as soil
aeration.
 Soil aeration is essential for the respiration and survival of soil organisms and plant roots.
 This process controls the deficiency of oxygen consumed during respiration of plant roots
and soil micro-organisms and prevents toxicity of carbon dioxide evolved during respiration
in the soil air.
Composition of Soil Air
 Soil air contains gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and others.
 The composition of soil air is different from atmospheric air.
 Soil air contains more carbon dioxide and less oxygen than atmospheric air.
 It also contains more water vapour than atmospheric air.
 The nitrogen content of soil air is almost equal to atmospheric air.