Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

(NBA Accredited)

Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering

(Part 1: Electrical Engineering)
Module 2 (2)
Benny K.K.
Assist. Professor
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
 Generation of Alternating Voltages

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 Generation of Alternating Voltages

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 Generation of Alternating Voltages
• Principle – Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction – “Whenever the flux linked with a coil
changes, an emf is induced in the coil
• Dynamically Induced EMF – since there is relative motion between coil and flux lines
• Here, the coil is formed by two conductors placed parallel inside the magnetic field, called
armature
• The magnetic field is produced by one set of magnetic poles, called field system
• The conductors are rotating at one end, and the other ends are connected to the external load
circuit by using slip rings and carbon brushes.
• When the conductors are moving inside the magnetic field, the flux cuttings are happening, and
this flux cutting is sinusoidal.
• As per the Faraday’s Law, the emf is proportional to the flux cutting, the induced emf is also
sinusoidal in nature
• i.e., when the conductor comes directly under the center of the poles, the flux cutting is
maximum and therefore the induced emf is maximum.

• When the conductor go away from the Center of the poles, the flux cutting becomes reduced in a
sinusoidal fashion
.
22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE
 Generation of Alternating Voltages
• Flux cutting is sinusoidal

ɸ =ɸ𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɵ where ɸm is the maximum value (at the centre of the poles) and ɵ represents the angle
between conductor position and centre of the poles.

ɸ=ɸ𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɷ 𝑡 ɵ can be represented in time, since ɵ represents the angular displacement.
With the help of angular velocity ɷ, ɵ = ɷt

• As per Faraday’s Law, 𝑑ɸ 𝑑 ɸ𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɷ 𝑡 𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɷ 𝑡

𝑒=− 𝑁 𝑒=− 𝑁 𝑒=− 𝑁 ɸ𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒=− 𝑁 ɸ𝑚 ∗ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɷ 𝑡 ∗ ɷ 𝑒=𝑁 ɸ𝑚 ɷ ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ɷ 𝑡 𝑒=𝑒𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ɷ 𝑡

• where, em = N , the maximum value of the induced emf, and occurs when the conductors are
directly under the centre of the poles
• When this sinusoidal (alternating) voltage come across the external load resistor, R, which makes
a conductive path/circuit and the induced current will flow through the circuit
𝑖=𝑖𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ɷ 𝑡
where, im = N /R
22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE
 Advantages of AC over DC
• Can be stepped up or down with the help of transformers – easy for transporting ac power
• AC motors are cheap and simple in construction – help industries
• Switch gear (circuit breakers) are simple in construction and principle – help to control the
current flow

The war of the currents was a series of events

surrounding the introduction of competing
electric power transmission systems in the late
1880s and early 1890s. In 1886, the Edison
system was faced with new competition: an
alternating current system initially introduced by
George Westinghouse's company that used
transformers to step down from a high voltage so
AC could be used for indoor lighting.

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 AC Voltage and AC Current
• AC Voltage – A voltage that changes its polarity at regular intervals of time is called as alternating
voltage
• Electricity is transmitted at AC voltage which varies sinusoidally as
v(t)= Vmsinɷt, where ɷt = , Vm is the maximum voltage, ɷ is the angular velocity
• When AC sinusoidal voltage is applied to a resistive circuit, the current through the resistor will
be of sinusoidal in nature as given below.
i(t)= v(t)/R= Vmsinɷt/R

i(t)= Imsinɷt IR
where, Im=Maximum Current

= Vm/R

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 AC Waveform Terminologies
• Waveform : - The shape of a wave obtained by
plotting its instantaneous values with respect to
time. Ex: Sinusoidal, Triangular, Trapezoidal, Square,
Rectangular, Sawtooth, etc.

• Instantaneous Value: - The value of a waveform at

a particular time instant

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 AC Waveform Terminologies
• Cycle: - One complete set of positive and negative
values of a waveform. For AC, one cycle means 360o
degrees or 2π Radians

• Time Period:- Time taken to complete one cycle

• Frequency: - No. of Cycles per second. Unit is Hz

Frequency = 1/Time Period, ie f = 1/T

Angular Velocity, ɷ = 2πf

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 AC Waveform Terminologies
• Amplitude: Maximum value attained by an
alternating quantity, denoted by Vm
• Peak Value: Maximum value obtained by the
waveform, denoted by Vp
• Peak to Peak Value: It is the absolute value
between positive peak and negative peak of a
waveform, denoted by Vpp
• Average Value: It is the average of all instantaneous values over a period of time, denoted by Vavg
• RMS Value: It is defined as that value of direct current which produces the same heating effect in
a given resistor as is produced by the given alternating current when passed for the same time,
denoted by Vrms

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 AC Waveform Terminologies
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑀𝑆𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

√
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
V2(t)
Ex: V(t)
2 9
3 6 t
4 Vrms = 2.55
Vavg = -0.5 Squared
t
-3 3 6
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=
+ 𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎+ −𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

(2 ∗3)+(−3 ∗ 3) 6 −9 − 3 −1 = 2.55
𝑅 𝑀𝑆𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=
√
𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= = = =
6 6 6 2

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE

 FF and PF of AC Full Wave
Average Value Computation Half Cycle Average Value Computation
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒(𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= 𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑( 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒)
π
+ve Half Cycle Area = A 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=∫ 𝐼 𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ɵ 𝑑 ɵ
0
π
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=𝐼 𝑚∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ɵ 𝑑 ɵ
0

π
𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑎 =𝐼 𝑚 [ −𝐶𝑜𝑠 ɵ ] 0

-ve Half Cycle Area = -A

+ 𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎+ −𝑣𝑒 𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=𝐼 𝑚 [ 1+1 ] 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=2 𝐼 𝑚
𝐴 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐻 𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑=π
=0 𝟐 𝑰𝒎
𝑨 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆=
𝝅
Since, zero, average value doesn’t give any useful information,
we compute the half cycle average value for sinusoidal If the waveform is a voltage, then
𝟐 𝑽𝒎
quantities. 𝑨 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆=
𝝅
22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE
 FF and PF of AC Full Wave
π
RMS Value Computation 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=∫ 𝐼 𝑚 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 ɵ 𝑑 ɵ 1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ɵ
𝑆𝑖𝑛 2 ɵ=

√
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡h𝑒 𝑆𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 0 2
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= π
1 −𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ɵ
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=𝐼 𝑚 2∫
2
𝑑ɵ π
𝐼 𝑚2
∫ (1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 ɵ) 𝑑 ɵ
0
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=
Squaring of an sinusoidal waveform will produce a waveform 2 0

[ ]
π
similar to fully rectified ac waveform, since, the squaring of –ve 𝐼 𝑚2 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 ɵ
instantaneous values will make +ve instantaneous values 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎= ɵ−
2 2 0

i2(t) i2(t) = Im2Sin2(ɷt) 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎=

𝐼 𝑚2
2 [
{ π − 0 } −{
𝑆𝑖𝑛2 π 𝑆𝑖𝑛 0
2
−
2
}
]
=

=
π 2π
Time Period = π

Now, the sinusoidal waveform is having a time period of π 𝑰𝒎

𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆=
radians (180 degrees). Therefore, the area computation is √𝟐
limited to first half. If the waveform is a voltage, then 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆= 𝑽 𝒎
√𝟐
22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE
 FF and PF of AC Full Wave
Form Factor Computation Peak Factor Computation
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒎 𝟐 𝑰𝒎 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆= 𝑰 𝒎 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆=
𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆= 𝑨 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆=
𝝅 √𝟐
√𝟐

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
√ 2 = π =1.11 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =√ 2= 1.414
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐼𝑚
2 𝐼𝑚 2 √2
π
√2

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =𝟏 . 𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =𝟏 . 𝟒𝟏𝟒

22/07/2025 Dept. of EEE, CCE