RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Rashtreeya Sikshana Samithi Trust's

Rashtreeya Vidyalaya Institute of Technology and

Management (RVITM), Bengaluru

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(BESCKC104) SEMESTER-I/II

Module-2

Oscillators and Operational Amplifier

Prepared by

Dr. Vikash Kumar Divyashree M

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Dept. of E & C Engg, Dept. of E & C Engg,
RVITM, Bengaluru RVITM, Bengaluru

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 1 of 29

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Module 2 RBT
Levels

Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal L2, L3

oscillators, Ladder network oscillator, Wein bridge oscillator,
Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled
oscillators (Only Concepts, working, and waveforms. No mathematical
derivations)

Operational amplifiers - Operational amplifier parameters, Operational

amplifier characteristics, Operational amplifier configurations,
Operational amplifier circuits.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 2 of 29

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

OSCILLATORS

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 3 of 29

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

2.1 BARKHAUSEN CRITERION FOR OSCILLATION

Introduction:
 An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as generator, generating the output signal which
oscillates with constant amplitude and constant desired frequency.
 The feedback is a property which allows to feedback the part of the output, to thesame Circuit as
its input. Such a feedback is said to be positive whenever the part of the output that is feedback to
the amplifier as its input, is in phase with the voltage gain A is shown in figure 2.1.1

Figure 2.1 The Basic Structure Of A Sinusoidal Oscillator

 Assume that a sinusoidal input signal Vs is applied to the circuit. As amplifier isnon-inverting,
the output voltage Vo is in phase with the input signal Vs.
 The part of the output fed back to the input with the help of a feedback netork.no phase Change
is introduced by the feedback network.

 As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input applied the feedback is
called positive feedback.
 The closed loop gain of positive feedback is given by,
𝐴
𝐴ƒ =
1 − 𝐴𝛽
 Thus without an input, the output will continue to oscillate hose frequency depends upon the
feedback network or the amplifier or both. Such a circuit is called as an oscillator.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 1 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Barkhausen criterion

It states that

1. The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds from input through
amplifier, feedback network back to the input again, completing a loop, is precisely 00 or
3600 or of course an integral multiply of 2π radians.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the amplifier (A) and the
feedback factor β is unity i.e. |Aβ|=1
Or

Conditions for oscillation

From the foregoing we can deduce that the conditions for oscillation are:

(a) the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase with
thesignal at the input);

(b) The overall loop voltage gain must be equal to 1, i.e. |Aβ|=1 (i.e. the amplifier’s
gain must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective
feedback network).

 If satisfying these conditions, the circuit works as an oscillator producing sustained

oscillations of constant frequency and amplitude.
 In reality no input is needed to start the oscillation. In practice Aβ>1 to start the
oscillation and then circuit adjust itself to get Aβ=1, finally resulting into self- sustained
oscillations.
 Let us see the effect of the magnitude of the product Aβ on the nature of the oscillations.
1. |Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| >1, then the output oscillates
but the oscillations are of growing type.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 2 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Figure 2.2 The Growing Type Oscillation

[Source: microelectronic circuits by sedra & smith, page no: 871]

2. |Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| = 1, then the oscillations are
with constant frequency amplitude called sustained oscillations.

Figure 2.3 Sustained oscillation

3. |Aβ| >1
When the total phase shift around a loop is 00 or 3600 and |Aβ| >1, thenthe oscillations are of
decaying type i.e such oscillation amplitude decreases exponentially and the oscillations finally
cease.

Figure 2.4 Exponentially Decaying Oscillation

Starting voltage:

 It is mentioned that no external input is required in case of oscillators.

 Every resistance has some free electrons. Under the influence of normal room
temperature, these free electrons move randomly in various directions. Such movements of the
free electrons generate a voltage called noise voltage, across the resistance.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 3 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

 Such noise voltages present across the resistances are amplified. Hence to amplify such
small noise voltage and start the oscillations, |Aβ| is kept greater than unity at start.
 The circuit adjusts itself to get |Aβ| =1 and with phase shift of 360 0 we get sustained
oscillations.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS

Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −

 Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform
are called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.
 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,
rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such
oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.

We will discuss only about Sinusoidal Oscillators in this tutorial. You can learn the functions of
non-sinusoidal oscillators from our Pulse Circuits tutorial.

Sinusoidal Oscillators

Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −

 Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of inductors (L)
and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals. Thus they are also known
as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators
etc.
 RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to generate low
or audio-frequency signals. Thus they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F.) oscillators.
Such oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge oscillators.
 Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate highly
stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is an example of
a crystal oscillator.
 Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance characteristic of
the devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an example of a negative-
resistance oscillator.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 4 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Non Sinusoidal Oscillators / Relaxation Oscillators: Oscillators that produce output that has
square, rectangular or saw tooth waveform or have output which is of pulse shape are called Non-
Sinusoidal Oscillators.

It may also be defined as a circuit in which voltage or current changes abruptly from one value to
another and which continues to oscillate between these two values as long as dc power is supplied
to it.

These oscillators are classified as:

1. Saw tooth Generators- The sawtooth wave generator is one kind of linear, nonsinusoidal
waveform, and the shape of this waveform is a triangular shape in which the fall time and
rise time are different. The sawtooth waveform can also be named an asymmetric triangular
wave.
2. Blocking Oscillators- A blocking oscillator is a waveform generator that is used to
produce narrow pulses or trigger pulses. While having the feedback from the output signal,
it blocks the feedback, after a cycle, for certain predetermined time.
3. Multivibrators- A multivibrator circuit is nothing but a switching circuit. It generates non-
sinusoidal waves such as Square waves, Rectangular waves and Saw tooth waves etc.

2.3 LADDER NETWORK OSCILLATOR

A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three- stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig. 2.5.
TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base
bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization. The total phase shift provided by the
C–R ladder network (connected between collector and base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.
The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of 360°
or 0° (note that these are the same). The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown in Fig. 2.5 is
given by:

f=1/2π√6 xCR (21)

The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least
29 in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice this is easily achieved with a single transistor.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 5 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.5 Sine wave oscillator based on a three- stage C–R ladder network
Problem

Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder network oscillator in which C = 10
nF and R = 10 kΩ.

Solution
Using 𝑓 = 1/2𝜋√6𝑅𝐶
𝑓 = 1/2𝜋√6 ∗ 10 ∗ 103 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−9
f = 647 Hz

2.4 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

An alternative approach to providing the phase shift required is the use of a Wien bridge
network. Like the C–R ladder, this network provides a phase shift which varies with frequency.
The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from C and D. At one particular
frequency, the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and output
signals will be in-phase). If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift
which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the Wien Bridge, oscillation will result.
The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by:
f = 1/2π√(R1C1R2C2)
if R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
The

f = 1/2πRC (22)

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 6 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig: Wein Bridge Oscillator

Problem

Fig. below shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier.
If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement
(a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.

Solution
a) Using 𝑓 = 1/2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Where R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
𝑓 = 1/2𝜋 ∗ 1 ∗ 103 ∗ 100 ∗ 10−9
f = 1.59 KHz

b) Using 𝑓 = 1/2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Where R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ
𝑓 = 1/2𝜋 ∗ 6 ∗ 103 ∗ 100 ∗ 10−9
f = 265 Hz

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 7 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

2.5 MULTIVIBRATORS

There are many occasions when we require a square wave output from an oscillator rather than a
sine wave output. Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms
consisting of one or more rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the
fact that this type of waveform is rich in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).Multivibrators use
regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present within the oscillator circuit being
operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.

The principal types of multivibrator are:

(a) astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are
sometimes also referred to as free-running multivibrators);

(b)monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stablestate
and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);

(c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or
control signal to change from one state to another

Fig. 2.6 This high-speed bistable multivibrator uses two general-purpose silicontransistors and works
at frequencies of up to 1 MHz triggered from an external signal

2.5.1 Single-stage astable oscillator

A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using just one
operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 1.51. The circuit employs positive feedback with the

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 8 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

output fed back to the non-inverting input via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2. This
circuit can make a very simple square wave source with a frequency that can be made adjustable
by replacing R with a variable or preset resistor. Assume that C is initially uncharged and the
voltage at the inverting input is slightly less than the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output
voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at the inverting input will begin to rise
exponentially as capacitor C charges through R. Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will
have reached a value that causes the voltage at the inverting input to exceed that present at the
non-inverting input. At this point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC. Capacitor C will
then start to charge in the other direction and the voltage at the inverting input will begin to fall
exponentially. Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes
the voltage at the inverting input to be less than that present at the non- inverting input. At this
point, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the cycle will continue
indefinitely. The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum positive value for the voltage at the
inverting input) will be given by

VUT = VCC (R2 / (R1+R2)

The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for the voltage at the inverting
input) will be given by:

VLT = VCC (R2 / (R1+R2)

The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for the voltage at the inverting
input) will be given by:

T=2CR ln(1+(R2 +R1) (23)

Fig. 2.7 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

2.6 CRYSTAL CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

A requirement of some oscillators is that they accurately maintain an exact frequency of
oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency determining element.
I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 9 of 26
 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces (this
phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size. Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize the
frequency of oscillation of a circuit to within a few parts in a million. Crystals can be
manufactured for operation in fundamental mode over a frequency range extending from
100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from 20 MHz to well over 100 MHz.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 10 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 11 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Operational amplifier parameters

Before we take a look at some of the characteristics of ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ operational amplifiers it is
important to define some of the terms and parameters that we apply to these devices.

Open-loop voltage gain

The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
input voltage measured with no feedback applied. In practice, this value is exceptionally high
(typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to considerable variation from one device to
another.

Fig. 2.8 A typical operational amplifier. This device is supplied in an eight-pin dual-in-line (DIL) package.
It has a JFET input stage and produces a typical open-loop voltage gain of 200,000

Fig. 2.9 Symbol for an operational amplifier

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 12 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.10 Supply connections for an operational amplifier

Open-loop voltage gain may thus be thought of as the ‘internal’ voltage gain of the device, thus:
AV(OL) = Vout / Vin (13)

where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, Vout and Vin are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions. In linear voltage amplifying applications, a large
amount of negative feedback will normally be applied and the open-loop voltage gain can be
thought of as the internal voltage gain provided by the device.

The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this
case:

AV(OL) = 20 log10 Vout / Vin (14)

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.

Closed-loop voltage gain

The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input
(i.e. with feedback applied). The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop
voltage gain to a value that is both predictable and manageable. Practical closed- loop voltage
gains range from one to several thousand but note that high values of voltage gain may make
unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth (see later). Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the
ratio of output voltage to input voltage but with negative feedback applied, hence:
AV(CL) = Vout / Vin (15)

Where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, Vout and Vin are the output and input voltages,
I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 13 of 26
 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

respectively, under closed-loop conditions. The closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much
less than the open-loop voltage gain

Problem
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V
when supplied with an input of 400 µV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:
AV(CL) = 20 log10 (5,000) = 20 X 3.7 = 74 dB

Input resistance

The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms. It is often expedient to assume that the input of an operational
amplifier is purely resistive, though this is not the case at high frequencies where shunt
capacitive reactance may become significant. The input resistance of operational amplifiers is
very much dependent on the semiconductor technology employed. In practice values range
12 Ω
from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 10 for FET and CMOS devices.

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to

RIN = VIN /IIN (16)

where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
current (in amps). Note that we usually assume that the input of an operational amplifier is purely
resistive though this may not be the case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance
may become significant. The input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much dependent
on the semiconductor technology employed. In practice, values range from about 2 MΩ for
bipolar operational amplifiers to over 1012 Ω for CMOS devices.

Output resistance

The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms. Typical values of output resistance
range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending upon the configuration and amount of
feedback employed. Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit
output current, hence:

R out= VOUT(OC) / IOUT(SC) (17)

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 14 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Where R out is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in
volts) and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).

Input offset voltage

An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0 V difference is applied
to its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small voltage
present at the output. The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier
input in order to make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage. Input
offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative feedback or by
using the offset null facility provided by a number of operational amplifier devices. Typical
values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV to 15 mV. Where a.c. rather than d.c. coupling is
employed, offset voltage is not normally a problem and can be happily ignored.

Full-power bandwidth

The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which the
maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.) value
(the sinusoidal input voltage remaining constant). Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10
kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed devices.

Slew rate

Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a rectangular step input voltage is
applied. The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time
in response to a perfect step-function input. Hence:

Slew rate = Δ VOUT / Δ t (18)

where Δ VOUT is the change in output voltage (in volts) and Δ t is the corresponding interval of
time (in seconds). Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/μs to
over 20 V/μs. Slew rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which large amplitude pulses rather than
small amplitude sinusoidal signals are likely to be encountered.

Problem 1
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V

when supplied with an input of 400 µV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 15 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Solution
𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) =
𝑉𝐼𝑁

2 2 ∗ 106
𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = = = 5,000
400 ∗ 10−6 400

Expressed in decibels (rather than as a ratio) this is:

𝐴𝑣(𝐶𝐿) = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (5,000) = 20 ∗ 3.7 = 74 𝑑𝐵

Problem 2
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when an
input voltage of 5 mV is present.

Solution
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑅𝐼𝑁 =
𝐼𝐼𝑁

𝑉𝐼𝑁 5 ∗ 10−3
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐼𝐼𝑁 = = = 2.5 ∗ 10−9 = 2.5𝑛𝐴
𝑅𝐼𝑁 2 ∗ 106
Operational amplifier characteristics

Having defined the parameters that we use to describe operational amplifiers we shall now

Fig. 2.11 Slew rate for an operational amplifier

Consider the desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier. These are:

(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 16 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).

(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

The characteristics of most modern integrated circuit operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’
operational amplifiers) come very close to those of an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier, as
witnessed by the data shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

Parameter Ideal Real

Voltage gain Infinite 100,000
Input resistance Infinite 100 MΩ
Output resistance Zero 20 Ω
Bandwidth Infinite 2 MHz
Slew rate Infinite 10 V/µs
Input offset Zero Less than 5 mV

Problem 3
A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 µsfor
the output voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.

Solution

The slew rate can be determined from:

Slew rate = Δ VOUT / Δ t

= 10V/4 µs = 2.5 V / µs

Problem 4

A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit
with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the
time taken for the output to change level.

Solution
The output voltage change will be 20 × 100m = 2,000 mV (or 2 V). Re-arranging
I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 17 of 26
 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

the formula for slew rate gives:

𝛥𝑣𝑂𝑈𝑇 2𝑉
𝛥𝑡 = = = 0.133𝜇𝑠
𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 15𝑣/𝜇𝑠

Operational amplifier configurations

The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers, together with the expressions for
their voltage gain, are shown in Fig. 2.12. Supply rails have been omitted from these diagrams
for clarity but are assumed to be symmetrical about 0 V.

● All of the amplifier circuits described previously have used direct coupling and thus
have frequency response characteristics that extend to d.c. This, of course, is undesirable
for many applications, particularly where a wanted a.c. signal may be superimposed on
an unwanted d.c. voltage level or when the bandwidth of the amplifier greatly exceeds that
of the signal that it is required to amplify. In such cases, capacitors of appropriate value
may be inserted in series with the input resistor, RIN, and in parallel with the feedback
resistor, RF
● The value of the input and feedback capacitors, CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so
as to rolloff the frequency response of the amplifier at the desired lower and upper cut-
off frequencies, respectively. The effect of these two capacitors on an operational
amplifier’s frequency response
● By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency response of an inverting
operational voltage amplifier may be very easily tailored to suit a particular set of
requirements.
● The lower cut-off frequency is determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and
input resistance, RIN. The lower cut-off frequency is given by:
f1 =1 / 2 π CINRIN

=0.159/ CINRIN

Where f 1 is the lower cut-off frequency in hertz, CIN is in farads and RIN is in ohms. Provided the
upper frequency response it not limited by the gain × bandwidth product, the upper cut-off
frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback resistance, RF, such
that: f2 =1 / 2 π CFRF (19)

where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in hertz, CF is in farads and R2 is in ohms.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 18 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.12 The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers

Fig. 2.13 Adding capacitors to modify the frequency response of an invertingoperational amplifier

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 19 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.14 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response ofan operational amplifier

Problem 5

An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the following specification:

Voltage gain = 100

Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 k Ω

Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz

Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz

Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification using an operational amplifier.

Solution
The nominal input resistance is the same as the value for RIN,
Thus: RIN = 10KΩ
To determine the value of RF, we can make use of the formula for mid-band voltage gain:
𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑣 =
𝑅𝐼𝑁
thus
𝑅𝐹 = 𝐴𝑣 ∗ RIN = 100 x 10 K =1000 KΩ To determine the value of 𝐶𝐼𝑁 we will use the formula for
the low-frequency cut-off:
0.159
𝑓1 =
𝐶𝐼𝑁 ∗ 𝑅𝐼𝑁

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 20 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

from which:
0.159 0.159
𝐶𝐼𝑁 = =
𝑓1 ∗ 𝑅𝐼𝑁 250 ∗ 10 ∗ 103

hence:
0.159
𝐶𝐼𝑁 = = 63 ∗ 10−9 𝐹 = 63𝑛𝐹
2.5 ∗ 106

Finally, to determine the value of C F, we will use the formula for high-frequency cut-off:
0.159
𝑓2 =
𝐶𝐹 ∗ 𝑅𝐹

from which

0.159 0.159
𝐶𝐹 = = = 10.6 𝑝𝐹
𝑓2 ∗ 𝑅𝐹 15 ∗ 10 ∗ 1000 ∗ 103
3

Operational amplifier circuits

As well as their application as a general-purpose amplifying device, operational amplifiers have a

number of other uses, including voltage followers, differentiators, integrators, comparators and
summing amplifiers.

Voltage followers

A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.15 This circuit is
essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the input. The result
is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and a very
high output resistance. This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for matching a high-
impedance circuit to a low-impedance circuit. Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage
follower are shown in Fig. 2.16 Notice how the input and output waveforms are both in-phase
(they rise and fall together) and that they are identical in amplitude.

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 21 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.15 A voltage follower

Fig. 2.16 Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower

Differentiators

A differentiator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.17. A differentiator

produces an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its input. This may sound a
little complex but it simply means that if the input voltage remains constant (i.e. if it isn’t
changing) the output also remains constant. The faster the input voltage changes the greater will
the output be. In mathematics this is equivalent to the differential function.

Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator are shown in Fig. 2.17. Notice how the
square wave input is converted to a train of short duration pulses at the output. Note also that the
output waveform is inverted because the signal has been applied to the inverting input of the
operational amplifier.

Fig. 2.17 A differentiator

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 22 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.18 Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator

Integrators
An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.19. This circuit provides the
Opposite function to that of a differentiator in that its output is equivalent to the area under the
graph of the input function rather than its rate of change. If the input voltage remains constant
(and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will ramp up or down according to the polarity of the
input. The longer the input voltage remains at a particular value the larger the value of output
voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.
Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator are shown in Fig. 2.20. Notice how the
square wave input is converted to a wave that has a triangular shape. Once again, note that the
output waveform is inverted.

Fig. 2.19 An integrator

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 23 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.20 Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator

Comparators

A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.21. Since no negative feedback
has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of the operational amplifier. The output
voltage produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise to the maximum possible value
(equal to the positive supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the non-inverting input
exceeds that present at the inverting input. Conversely, the output voltage produced by the
operational amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value (equal to the negative supply rail
voltage) whenever the voltage present at the inverting input exceeds that present at the non-
inverting input.

Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator are shown in Fig. 2.22. Notice how the
output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on the relative polarity of the two inputs. A typical
application for a comparator is that of comparing a signal voltage with a reference voltage. The
output will go high (or low) in order to signal the result of the comparison.

Fig. 2.21 A comparator

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 24 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.22 Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator

Summing amplifiers

A summing amplifier using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 2.23. This circuit produces
an output that is the sum of its two input voltages. However, since the operational amplifier is
connected in inverting mode, the output voltage is given by:

VOUT = – (V1 + V2) (20)

where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that all of the resistors used in the circuit have the
same value).

Fig. 2.23 Summing amplifier

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 25 of 26

 RV Institute of Technology & Management®

Fig. 2.24 Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier

I & II-Semester, Introduction to Electronics Engineering (BESCKC104) Page 26 of 26