Indira Gandhi

National Open University

MIO-003
School of Engineering & Technology SMART URBAN
ENERGY AND SMART
TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEMS

BLOCK 1
SMART ENERGY
 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
MIO-003
School of Engineering & Technology SMART URBAN ENERGY
AND SMART
TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEMS

Block

1
SMART ENERGY
UNIT 1
Introduction to Smart Energy

UNIT 2
Smart Energy Systems

UNIT 3
Micro and Smart Grid

UNIT 4
Introduction to SCADA
MIO - 003: SMART URBAN ENERGY AND SMART TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
BLOCK 1: SMART ENERGY

GUIDANCE
Prof. Nageshwar Rao Prof. Satyakam Prof. Ashish Agarwal
Vice-Chancellor, IGNOU PVC, IGNOU Director, SOET, IGNOU

COURSE CURRICULUM DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

External Expert Members
Dr. Charru Malhotra Prof. Sewaram
Associate Professor, IIPA, ITO, New Delhi Head, Transport Planning, SPA, NewDelh
Prof. (Dr.) Rashmi Ashtt. Dr. Chetna Singh
Principal & Director, Hindu College of Design, Assistant Professor, SPA, NewDelhi
Architecture & Planning, Sonipat, Haryana
Ms. Meenakshi Tyagi Dr. Neha Goel Tripathi
AGM, Architect & Planner, Gurugram Assistant Professor, SPA, New Delhi
Mr. Sunil Mr. Samir Chaudhuri
Associate Professor, Hindu College of Design, Retired Head (IT), PGCIL, Gurugram
Architecture & Planning, Sonipat, Haryana
Dr. [Link] Rao Dr. Asif Nazar
Associate Professor, NIT, Warangal [Link] (Tech), MTNL Delhi
Dr. P. Shridhar INTERNAL FACULTY MEMBERS
Assistant Professor, NIT, Warangal
Dr. K.V.R. Ravi Shankar Prof. Ashish Agarwal Prof. Sanjay Agrawal
Assistant Professor, NIT Warangal
Mr. Pradeep Kumar Marri Prof. [Link] Dr. Shashank Srivastav
Assistant Professor, KITS, Karimnagar, Telangana
Prof. V.V. Subrahmanyam Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu Dr. Shweta Tripathi
SOCIS, IGNOU
Prof. P.V.K Sashidhar Prof. Rakhi Sharma Dr. Anuj Kumar Purwar
SOEDS, IGNOU
Dr. Munish Kumar Bhardwaj

Programme Coordinator Course Coordinator Block Coordinator

Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu Dr. Shweta Tripathi Prof. Sanjay Agrawal
SOET-IGNOU Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM
BLOCK 1: SMART ENERGY
Units Written by Block 1 Editor Block Coordination and CRC Management
Unit - 1,3 & 4 Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu Prof. Sanjay Agrawal
Prof. Sewa Ram, Prof. Sanjay Agrawal Prof. N. Venkateshwarlu
SPA Delhi
Unit - 2
Mr. Asif Nazar
Ex Dy. Manager, MTNL, Delhi

©Indira Gandhi National Open University, (IGNOU) 2022 CRC Prepared in 2021
ISBN - 978-93-5568-407-3
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UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SMART ENERGY
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Solar Energy
1.3 Solar Energy Applications in Smart Cities
1.4 Solar Panels
1.5 Solar Street Lights
1.6 Solar Floating PV Panels
1.7 References and Further Readings

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Smart energy is the method of using devices for energy efficiency. It focuses
on powerful and sustainable renewable energy sources that promote greater
respect for the environment while reducing costs. The words "smart energy"
and "smart energy systems" have recently been introduced to broaden the
notion of "smart grid." While smart grids primarily focus on the electrical
sector, smart energy systems (or smart energy grids) also cover heating,
cooling, industry, buildings, and transportation. Smart energy regions are
defined as areas that provide maximum quality of life to their residents while
consuming the least amount of energy possible by integrating infrastructures
(energy, mobility, transport, communication, etc.). Realizing this may need a
powerful communications infrastructure that allows for pervasive and
dependable information transmission among sensors and actuators. (Matthew
N. O. Sadiku, 2021)
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to :
• Define solar energy.
• Explain smart energy.
• Describe solar energy application in smart cities.
• Explain solar street lights, solar panels and solar floating PV panels.
Smart energy is defined as the effective use of energy through enhanced design,
high efficiency technology, and conservation, as well as the use of clean
renewable resources to generate power, heat, and transportation fuels.
The smart energy network is a component of the electrical energy system,
which is a key infrastructure that supports a wide range of critical and non-
critical infrastructure. It would be a system that is robust in the face of
adversity and capable of recovering quickly from calamities.
The smart energy system and smart metres are the two main components of
smart energy management.
Smart energy has the potential to cut family and corporate energy expenses. It
also cuts demand for oil and gas while also creating new green employment. It
will create new markets for distributed zero-emissions energy sources like
solar and wind.
Efficient energy usage is critical to achieving smart energy goals (as well as
land protection, water quality, and other environmental goals) since it results in
long-term cost savings and increases the likelihood of fulfilling our future
energy demands through renewable sources. Through the use of smart energy
technology, traditional buildings may be transformed into smart buildings,
resulting in sustainable energy. A smart energy system would include new
types of flexibility such as energy storage, demand side response, smart
networks, and connectivity.
At present, the importance of smart energy is increasing, with companies
making smart energy systems a top priority. This increased investment in smart
energy systems has many benefits for consumers, the environment and energy
providers in general.

1.2 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is used around the world and is increasingly popular to generate
electricity or to heat and desalinate water. Solar energy is produced in two
main ways:
Photovoltaics (PV)
Also called solar cells, is an electronic device that directly converts sunlight
into electricity. The modern solar cell photovoltaics is as shown in Figure 1.1
is probably an image most people would recognize - they are found in panels
installed on homes and in calculators. These were invented in the year 1954, at
Bell Telephone Laboratories in the United States.

Figure 1.1: Photovoltaic

Solar PV installations can be joined together to provide electricity at a
commercial scale, or arranged in smaller configurations for mini-grids or
personal use. Solar photovoltaic energy may be used to power mini-grids,
which is a fantastic method to supply electricity to those who do not live near
power lines, especially in developing nations with abundant solar energy
resources.
Solar panels are becoming more economical and the cheapest type of energy
due to lower production costs. Solar panels have a life expectancy of around 30
years.
Concentrated Solar Energy (CSP),
It uses mirrors to concentrate the sun rays. The rays then heat the fluid creating
steam to run a turbine and generate electricity.
 Figure 1.2: CSP Plant Diagram
The CSP plant is as shown in Figure 1.2 has mirrors that redirect the rays to a
tower. One of the main advantages of a CSP plant is that it can be fitted with
molten salts in which heat can be stored to generate electricity after sunset.

1.3 SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS IN SMART CITIES

Master plans for smart cities include both in-city and off-site power generation
systems. When it comes to off-site infrastructure, the 100 GW solar roadmap
by 2022 envisions 20 GW of power generation through solar farms. An
additional 10 GW will be implemented with the help of farmers.
However, the mission in town received massive priority with over 40 GW
coming from rooftop solar power plants. The proliferation of solar PV systems
across the world has also dramatically reduced the prices of solar panels.
Now, the use of a solar panel on the roof for the home is not limited to water
heaters. Several countries have shown a massive boost in powering entire
homes and shops with photovoltaic panels. More than 16 states in the country
have already put in place policies to encourage the use of solar energy.
Off-grid solar systems are also on the rise. Small commercial establishments
and large homes can be fully powered by 1kW solar panels available in the
market. The design of the off-grid solar system consists of only three main
components: an inverter, a battery and solar panels. The installation is quite
simple and significantly reduces the dependence on power from the network.
The difference between off-grid vs on-grid solar system is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Off-grid Vs On-grid

This initiative is highly recommended to achieve an energy efficiency of 80%
in buildings such as offices, schools, residential centers, etc. Installing solar
panels can also power street lights, water pumps, traffic lights, poles / flashing
resources needed to ensure a successful implementation. Per city, the Ministry
of New and Renewable Energies provides Rs. 50 Lakh to implement solar
energy. To develop solar cities, urban local communities called Solar City cells
are being set up. Citizens are encouraged to approach local organizations to
exploit this resource and bring greener energy into daily life.
In 2019, India's solar installation stood at 26,984 MW on the ground while the
rooftop solar power plants have a capacity of 1,796 MW. There is huge
potential for a rapid increase in the use of rooftop solar installation as it is easy
to implement and offers many economic benefits to users. A one-time
investment, SPV roof panels are both economically and environmentally
beneficial for users.
Initially, 8 major cities were selected to make smart cities which are Amritsar,
Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Vizag, Kolkata and Myanmar. 34 solar
cities included in the list of smart cities in stage 2 are Guwahati, Raipur,
Bilaspur, Panaji, Gandhinagar, Surat, Rajkot, Faridabad, Hubbali-Dhardwad,
Kochi, Bhopal, Indore, Gwalior, Thane, Nagpur, Kalyan -Dombivalli,
Aurangabad, Imphal, Aizawl, Kohima, Bhubaneswar New Town Kolkata and
Chandigarh.
GIFT (Gujarat International Finance Tech City)
Gujarat International Finance Tech-City (GIFT) is a Gujarat government-
sponsored joint venture commercial area. It is India's first smart city. The city
has a district cooling system, an underground utility tunnel, and automated
vacuum trash collection, among other things. The city is designed for walking
and includes commercial and residential complexes
The project is located on the bank of the Sabarmati River and approximately
12 km (7.5 mi) from Gandhinagar International Airport. A dual-corridor metro
system is planned to connect GIFT City with the airport and various parts of
Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar
Diu
In 2018, Diu became the first Union territory to run 100% on solar energy as
part of the smart cities mission. Through the use of solar power plants, 13 MW
of solar capacity was installed in just three years. A 9 MW solar park spread
over 50 hectares is now the city's lifeline. The 22,000 inhabitants of Diu
benefit from the economic advantages of solar energy, with a 15% reduction in
electricity prices. Ecologically, the success is even more worthy of celebration,
as the city now saves 13,000 tonnes of carbon emissions each year.

1.4 SOLAR PANELS

A solar panel, or solar module, is a component of a photovoltaic system. They
are made up of a series of photovoltaic cells arranged in a panel. They come in
various rectangular shapes and are installed in combination to generate
electricity. Solar panels which are also called photovoltaic collect energy from
the sun in the form of sunlight and convert this energy into electricity which
can be used to power residences or businesses.
 Figure 1.4: Solar Panel System Connection Diagram
In addition to residential and commercial use, there is large-scale industrial or
utility use of solar power. In this case, thousands, if not millions, of solar
panels are arranged in a large solar array, or solar farm, as shown in Figure 1.4
which provides electricity to large urban populations.
Solar panels are used to assemble a series of solar cells so that their unique
properties can be used to generate electricity. Individual cells absorb photons
from the Sun, which causes an electrical current to be produced in the cell
through a phenomenon known as the photovoltaic effect. An inverter is used to
convert the direct current produced by the solar panel into alternating current.
Combined of these two technologies create a photovoltaic system. When
installing a solar panel, the proper orientation is chosen so that the solar panel
is oriented in the most suitable direction for the specific application. Most of
the time, this involves producing the maximum amount of energy per year, but
this is not always the case.
No less than 26 public buildings in the city have been fitted with solar panels
as part of the Smart Cities mission. Once commissioned, the project could
reduce public expenditure on electricity and reduce carbon emissions from
power generation by about three tonnes per day, compared to emissions from
thermal power generation.
The signs were installed on 21 Kochi company buildings and five government
buildings. They include the Company Office, Town Hall, Gandhinagar Fire
Station, Ernakulam General Hospital, Thevara Nursing Home, Government
Girls' High School, Edakochi, Government Upper Secondary School and the
Maharaja's College. The panels above the town hall have the highest
generation capacity of 80 kilowatts (kW), followed by the general hospital
which can now generate up to 70 kW. In total, the panels can generate around
3,000 units or 1,000 kW per day, provided the sky is clear. Producing a unit of
thermal energy can release around 1kg of carbon dioxide, according to officials
at Cochin Smart Mission Limited (CSML).

1.5 SOLAR STREET LIGHTS

Solar street lights are gradually replacing the widely used traditional public
street lights. They have a crystalline silicon solar battery to provide power, a
controlled maintenance-free battery to store electricity, an ultra-bright LED
lamp as the light source. And they are controlled by an intelligent charge and
discharge controller.
Composition of Solar Street Lights
Solar lighting solutions are composed of an LED lamp is shown in Figure 1.5,
for optimal lighting, a solar panel, to capture the sun's rays, a storage battery, a
solar street light controller, a floor lamp, etc. The main products are mono-
crystalline silicon solar panel and polycrystalline silicon solar panel, powerful
LED source, controller located in the lamp pole, storage battery, valve
regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) and gel battery (underground or some
incubator).

Figure 1.5: Solar Street Light Diagram

How these solar streets do lights work?
The solar panel, under the control of the intelligent controller, captures solar
energy and converts it into electricity when the sun's rays hit the solar cells.
The storage battery is charged by the solar battery during the day, and then it
powers the LED lamp at night. The controller plays a very important role in
protecting the storage battery from overcharging or over discharging. (energy-
xprt, 2021)
Pros
• The solar street lights are independent of the electrical network. Hence,
the operating costs are reduced to minimum.
• Solar street lights have a very less maintenance cost as compared to
conventional street lights.
• As the outer wires are eliminated, the risk of accident is minimized.
• It is a non-polluting source of electricity.
 • Separate parts of the solar system can be easily transported to remote
areas
Cons
• The initial investment is higher compared to conventional street lights.
• Snow or dust, combined with humidity, can accumulate on horizontal
photovoltaic panels and reduce or even stop energy production.
• Rechargeable batteries will need to be replaced several times during
the life of the fixtures, increasing the total cost of the life of the light.

1.6 SOLAR FLOATING PV PANELS

Solar panels that float above water are known as floating solar, floating
photovoltaic (FPV), or floatovoltaics. Solar panels should be linked to a
floating framework that allows them to remain above the water's surface.
Floating solar systems are also prevalent on big man-made bodies of water,
like as reservoirs. The first patents for this type of technology were filed in
2008. Since then, floating solar has mainly been installed in countries like
China, Japan and the UK. A Solar Floating PV panels is as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Solar Floating PV Panels

1.6.1 Advantages of Floatovoltaics
No loss of precious land space
The biggest advantage of floatovoltaics or Solar Floating PV Panels is that we
don’t require floor area for the installation. Many of these facilities, such as
hydroelectric dam reservoirs, sewage treatment ponds, and potable water
reservoirs, can take up underutilised space on water bodies. Additionally,
installing solar panels on open water reduces the need for tree felling and
deforestation, a practice used with some larger solar panel installations.
Higher solar panel performance
Solar panels are made durable to operate at high temperatures. But as with
other electronic devices, higher temperatures result in decreased power output.
Solar panels' efficiency decreases as temperatures rise, which might be a worry
for homeowners considering solar panels in a hot, sunny environment. Bodies
of water that house floating solar panels help cool solar equipment, meaning
the panels produce electricity with higher efficiency in hot climates than they
might otherwise.
Environmental benefits
With floating solar installations, water not only has a cooling effect on solar
equipment: it also works in the other direction. This is a particularly useful
benefit in drought-prone areas, as water loss through evaporation can build up
over time and contribute to scarcity.
It also helps in reducing the formation of algae in freshwater which is
dangerous to human health and is also responsible for the death of aquatic life.
Finally, floating solar panels are a source of clean, renewable electricity. The
use of renewable energy technologies helps reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases and other pollutants into the atmosphere, leaving a positive impact on the
natural environment as well as on human health.
1.6.2 Disadvantages of floating solar
Costs
When compared to more typical forms of solar panel installations, floating
solar systems may incur higher expenditures. As it is a new technology, it
requires skilled knowledge for installation than installing similar sized solar
farms on rooftops or ground.
Applications
Floating solar systems don't work for everyone. The vast majority of floating
solar systems are large-scale, providing power to utility companies, big towns,
enterprises, and municipalities. If you are looking for solar power for your
home, then it makes a lot more sense to install a system on the roof or on the
ground. Those who invest in floating solar often have access to a large body of
water to install hundreds or thousands of solar panels. Unlike these types of
installations, the average residential solar panel system has around 20 panels.
Installation companies and developers who install floating solar projects today
are not doing so on small-scale installations.
SAQ 1
a) What is Solar Energy? Explain briefly the ways to produce solar
energy.
b) What are the applications of Solar Energy in Smart Cities? Support
your answer with the example of any city.
c) What is the composition of Solar Street Light? What are their
advantages and disadvantages?
d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of floatovoltaics with
respect to the environment?
1.7 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
[1] (n.d.). Retrieved from [Link]
definition-of-solar-street-lights-399048
[2] (2020). Retrieved from [Link]: [Link]
[3] 26 buildings get solar panels under Smart Cities mission. (2020).
[4] encyclopedia. (2021, August 12). energyeducation. Retrieved August 12,
2021, from [Link]:
[Link]
[5] energysage. (2021, August 13). energysage. Retrieved August 13, 2021,
from [Link]: [Link]
what-you-need-to-know/
[6] energy-xprt. (2021, August 12). Retrieved August 12, 2021, from
[Link]: [Link]
definition-of-solar-street-lights-399048
[7] engoplanet. (2021, August 12). Retrieved August 12, 2021, from
[Link]: [Link]
13-solar-street-light-basics
[8] IRENA. (2020). Battery Storage Paves Way for a Renewable-powered
Future.
[9] Matthew N. O. Sadiku, P. O. (2021). Smart Energy. INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY (IJERT)
Volume 10, Issue 09.
[10] Riya Rahiman, A. F. (2019). MAKING INDIAN CITIES ENERGY
SMART. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI).
[11] Solar, A. (2021, August 12). homescape blog. Retrieved August 12, 2021,
from [Link]: [Link]
towards-solar-energy-revolution/
[12] USA, S. E. (2021, August 12). What is Smart Energy. Retrieved August
12, 2021, from [Link]: [Link]
smart-energy/
UNIT 2 SMART ENERGY SYSTEMS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Smart Storage Mission
2.3 Storage and Smart Storage Technologies
2.4 Smart Solar Chargers
2.5 Clean Energy
2.6 Smart Lighting
2.7 Battery Storage
2.8 Check Your Progress – Possible Answers
2.9 References and Further Readings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A smart energy system is an approach in which smart electricity, smart heating
and cooling, and smart transportation are combined with storage technologies.
Synergy among smart electricity, smart heating and cooling, and smart
transportation is key to the development of a smart city. The transition from
fossil fuel based energy to 100% renewable energy goes through clean energy.
Clean energy envisages technologies that help in reducing carbon emission but
not necessarily limited to renewable energy. With changing energy mix with an
increased share of variable renewable energy sources like wind and solar, the
balance between electricity supply and demand is vital. It is due to the
intermittency of power generated from wind and solar. Energy storage
technologies will play a pivotal role in neutralizing the intermittency of wind
energy and solar power. When it comes to heating and cooling of residential
and commercial buildings, clean energy options like a geothermal heat pump,
solar water heater, and natural gas are available. For the transportation sector,
the guzzler of fossil fuel and one of the main causes of carbon emission, electric
vehicle, compressed natural gas, biodiesel, fuel cells, and hydrogen may play a
key role. Hence, the synergy and coordination amongst smart electricity,
heating and cooling, and transportation combined with storage technologies
will be at the heart of a smart city.
Objective
In this unit, you will learn about the basics and applications of Smart Energy
Systems, holistic integration of smart electricity, heating and cooling, and
transportation with storage technologies. After reading this unit, you will be
able to:
• Appreciate energy storage technologies and their role
• Understand smart solar charger and concept of V2G (Vehicle to Grid)
• Identify clean energy technologies
• Understand the concept of smart lighting and its benefits
• Discuss various applications of battery storage

2.2 SMART STORAGE MISSION

The share of renewable energy in India’s energy mix is going to be 40% by
2030. With an increased share of intermittent renewable energy sources like
solar and wind, battery storage will play a key role. Key areas of application of
storage battery include grid integration of renewable energy and storage
component of electric mobility plans. Storage battery costs around 35% of
electric vehicles cost. So a significant amount will go for the import of battery
for electric vehicle and other applications. Against this background, in February
2018, an expert committee was created to propose a draft for setting up a
National Energy Storage Mission (NESM) for India. The committee has
proposed a draft NESM with the objective to strive for leadership in the energy
storage sector by creating an enabling policy and regulatory frameworks that
encourage manufacturing, deployment, innovation and further cost reduction.
NITI Aayog and Rocky Mountain Institute’s joint report on India’s Energy
Storage Mission had then proposed a three-stage solution approach, i.e. creating
an environment for battery manufacturing growth, scaling supply chain
strategies, and scaling of battery cell manufacturing.
In March 2019, the Union Cabinet approved the setting up of “National mission
on transformative mobility and battery storage”. An inter-ministerial steering
committee chaired by NITI Aayog CEO has been set up. To ensure that all parts
of the government are in sync, the committee comprises secretaries from the
ministries of road transport and highways, power, new and renewable energy,
department of science and technology, department of heavy industry,
department of promotion of industry and internal trade, and Director General,
Bureau of Indian Standards (BSI). The steering committee has recommended
that after March 31, 2023, only electric three wheelers (with lithium-ion or
other advanced battery chemistry only) shall be sold under three wheelers
category. After March 31,2025, all new sales under the category of two
wheelers below 150 cc shall be electric two wheeler (with lithium-ion or other
advanced battery chemistry only). With this envisaged transition to electric
vehicles, it is essential to manufacture lithium-ion or advanced chemistry
battery domestically and at a globally competitive price.
The terms of reference of the Mission (National mission on transformative
mobility and battery storage) in respect of battery storage is as below (NITI
Aayog, Notification dated 08 March 2019):
“Battery cells currently constitute around 35% of the cost of electric vehicles.
India is the fastest growing economy in the world with a huge requirement for
energy storage solutions for electric mobility, complementing new and
renewable energy generation, grid stabilization and the growing number of
devices. The mission is to formulate and launch a Phased Manufacturing
Program (PMP) focusing on batteries, including raw materials, electro-
chemistry, end of life treatment, comprising manufacturing of cells, modules,
battery packs and usage in vehicles. This would require manufacturing at Giga
scale with the active participation of the industry.”
The core objective of the Mission (National mission on transformative mobility
and battery storage) is to obtain comprehensive connectedness in policy
framework to promote mobility and storage in India. The roadmap envisioned
for the storage has been spelt as below:
A phased roadmap to implement battery manufacturing at Giga-scale will be
considered with an initial focus on the large-scale module and pack assembly
plants by 2019-20, followed by integrated cell manufacturing by 2021-22.
Details of the Phased Manufacturing Plan (PMP) for Batteries shall be
formulated by the Mission. The Mission will ensure the holistic and
comprehensive growth of the battery manufacturing industry in India.
What will be the impact of this Mission? First of all, it will reduce oil import
dependency for the country. Then it will pave the way for increased renewable
energy and storage solutions in India’s energy mix.
Check Your Progress 1
In this section, you studied smart storage mission, now answer the questions
given in Check Your Progress-1.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) What are the core objectives of smart storage mission?
….………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………...….……………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...….…………
…………………………………………………………………………………
(2) What are the roadmaps of smart storage mission?
….………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………...….……………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………...….…………
…………………………………………………………………………………

2.3 STORAGE AND SMART STORAGE

TECHNOLOGIES
Energy storage is a key supportive technology for the development of smart
energy systems. Energy storage has a prominent role in the grid access of large-
scale renewable energy, distributed power generation, and electric vehicle.
Energy storage’s role is versatile as it can be used in all elements of the power
system. The main elements of power systems are power generation, power
transmission, power distribution, and end-use electricity. The power grid
confronts problems, and challenges due to energy mix heavily skewed towards
fossil fuel based (coal-based) power plants. Coal based power plants generally
cater to base load and hence lead to insufficient peak modulation capability of
the power system. The addition of intermittent energy sources like wind and
solar, meeting out peak modulation, stable grid operation, and power quality are
obvious challenges. End-users demand varies considerably during different
times, regions, and seasons, causing an obvious peak modulation problem.
Energy storage is capable of playing different roles in every element of the
power system, from generation to transmission to distribution to end-user. It is
a flexible part of a smart energy system and capable of demand side
management, eliminate the peak-valley gap, renewable capacity firming,
independent power source, and transmission and distribution deferral.
2.3.1 Energy Storage Technologies
Energy storage technologies are classified into four classes depending upon the
physical way of energy storage. These are: Mechanical Energy Storage,
Electrical Energy Storage, Chemical Energy Storage and Thermal Energy
Storage. Mechanical energy storage consists of pumped hydro energy storage
(PHES), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and Flywheels. Electrical
energy storage includes supercapacitors and superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES). Chemical energy storage includes batteries and fuel cells.
Figure 2.1 summarizes these storage technologies.
 Figure 2.1: Classification of Energy Storage Technologies
Source: Energy Storage, Grid Integration, Energy Economics, and the Environment by Radian Belu, CRC press (2019).

These storage technologies have further been explained here.

Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES)
In Pumped Hydro Energy Storage (PHES), water is pumped into the upper
reservoir and stored there. When energy is required by the grid, water is
released through the turbine to lower reservoir and electricity is produced.
An opportunity exists to use electrical energy storage to absorb surplus power
and discharging power when reserves are required. For many years, PHES has
been used in this role. Water can be released from the upper reservoir of
pumped hydro plants at short notice, and reserves in the order of hundreds of
megawatts can be called at short notice.
PHES is the most common storage technology. The share of PHES in the
world’s total installed power capacity is 3%. Among storage technologies, the
share of PHES is 97%. PHES has a relatively high efficiency of 65-85%, the
typical power capacity of 100-1000 MW, storage capacity of 1-24 hours and a
life of 30-60 years.
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
In Compressed Air Energy Storage, air is compressed during charging and then
stored in an underground cavern or pressure vessel. When electricity is required,
the compressed air is released from the cavern through a turbo-generator.
CAES is basically suitable for medium and large energy application. CAES has
a relatively high efficiency of 60-80%, a typical power capacity of 50-300 MW,
a storage capacity of 2- 50 hours and a life of 20-40 years.
Flywheels
Flywheels store energy in the form of kinetic energy. A flywheel comprises a
rotating mass that stores kinetic energy. When charging, a torque applied in the
direction of rotation accelerates the rotor, increasing its speed and energy is
stored. When discharging, a braking torque (negative torque) decelerates the
rotor, extracting energy while performing useful work.
This technology is mature and suitable for high power application. Flywheels
have a relatively high efficiency of 90-95%, the long cycle life of 10,000-
100,000 and a life of 15- 20 years.
Fuel Cell
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity without
combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce water and heat. The
fundamental distinction between fuel cells and batteries is that batteries store
fuel internally whereas fuel cells use external fuel storage. In fuel cells, the
chemicals are supplied from external reservoir so that the capacity of the device
is limited only by their supply. Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of
electrolyte they employ.
Electrochemical Batteries
Recharging batteries contain three components: cathode, anode and electrolyte.
The electrolyte may be solid or liquid. The electrodes are immersed in the
electrolyte. During discharge, redox reactions take place, and the electric
current flows in the external circuit from cathode to anode. As the reactions are
reversible, the battery can be recharged by applying an external voltage across
electrodes. Depending upon electrodes and electrolytes, there are various types
of batteries that can operate in different conditions with different applications.
Li-ion and Sodium Sulfur are examples of electrochemical batteries.
Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors store electrical energy in an electric field between two
electrodes separated by a dielectric and immersed in liquid electrolyte.
Supercapacitors are suitable for high power application as they have a very fast
response time of the order of a millisecond, high roundtrip efficiency of 95%, a
high power density of 10,000 W/kg and a life of 8-10 years. Supercapacitors
have not yet reached commercial maturity.
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)
A Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage is a device that stores energy in
the magnetic field generated by the direct current flowing through the
superconducting coil.
SMES is a relatively new technology. At present, they have no commercial
market but are considered promising technology.
2.3.2 Characteristics of Energy Storage Technologies
Some of the important characteristics of Energy storage technologies have been
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Characteristics of Energy Storage Technologies
Technology Power Cycles Discharge time Overall
rating efficiency
(MW)
PHS 10-5000 20,000-50,000 1-24 h 0.70-0.82
CAES 5-400 >3,000 1-24 0.70-0.90
Flywheels Up to 0.25 20,000- ms-15m 0.93-0.95
100,000
Supercapacitor Up to 0.3 100,000 ms – 60m 0.85-0.95
SMES 0.1-10 >100,000 Ms-8s 0.95-0.98
Source: various sources

2.3.3 Applications of Energy Storage Technologies for Grid Support

Some of the applications of energy storage technologies for grid support
include grid ancillary services and arbitrage. Grid ancillary services help in
maintaining power quality, reliability and security of the grid. They are needed
to balance random fluctuations caused by the difference in supply and demand.
These services need to be activated from a few seconds to several minutes. Grid
ancillary services can be classified into frequency control services, voltage
control services, and emergency services. Frequency regulation, load following
and operating reserves come under frequency control services.
Further frequency regulation can be classified into primary frequency
regulation, secondary frequency regulation and tertiary frequency regulation
depending upon the time of activation of the service. Primary frequency
regulation is fully activated within 30 seconds and ends at 15 minutes.
Secondary frequency regulation gets fully activated in 15 minutes and remains
there as long as desired by ISO (Independent System Operator). Tertiary
frequency regulation gets fully activated in a short time. Operating Reserves are
classified into spinning reserve and non-spinning reserve. The word spinning
signifies that generation capacity (generator) is online. This generation capacity
is online but unloaded/partially loaded and can respond within 10 minutes to
compensate for generation or transmission outages.
As response time of energy storage technologies is in seconds and minutes, they
can respond very quickly and are ideal candidates for participation in grid
ancillary services ensuring power quality, reliability and stability of the grid.
Storing energy during the off-peak hour (low energy cost) and using stored
energy during peak hours (high energy cost) is termed energy arbitrage. Load
leveling is an application of energy arbitrage or time shift.
2.3.4 Smart Storage Systems
Smart storage systems consist of batteries, inverters, protective switchgear and
a control and measurement system. Every string of battery system has its own
battery management module. The battery management module keeps track of
the state of charge (SoC) of batteries, voltage, temperature and safety of battery
operation. Remotely operated power breaker switch and synchro-check are the
part of switchgear. Control, Measurement and Data Collection is the heart of
the smart storage system. This is the component that transforms the storage
device into smart storage. Three functional components of control,
measurement and data collection are controller, measurement and data
collection. A controller is capable of executing advanced control algorithms.
For control and data collection purposes, power flows are measured throughout
the system. The server hardware is also used as a sink for logging purposes.
Check Your Progress 2
In this section, you studied storage technologies, now answer the questions
given in Check Your Progress-2.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) What are grid applications for storage technologies?
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(2) What are the components of smart storage technologies?
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(3) Discuss classification of Storage Technologies.
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2.4 SMART SOLAR CHARGERS

Variable renewable energy sources or distributed generation will be key drivers
in a smart city. Further, the transportation sector will be driven mainly by
electric vehicles. With a predominance of an electric vehicle, electricity
demand and supply will be less predictable and grid balancing will be
challenging. Fortunately, small generation unit like solar Photovoltaic (solar PV)
will be prominently placed, and electric vehicles can be charged easily using
solar PV. Not only electric vehicles will be charged on solar PV, but they can
also contribute to grid power whenever it is required. Smart solar charging
serves this purpose. Smart solar charging minimizes the load impact from
electric vehicles and unlocks the flexibility to use more solar PV.
Smart charging takes three things into account. First, it considers distribution
grid constraints, i.e. causing as less an impact on the grid as possible. Secondly,
it takes into account of availability of local renewable energy sources like solar
PV. Lastly, it considers electric vehicle driver’s charging requirement. In other
words, smart charging means charging the car at the proper time, with the
proper power to cause as less an impact on the grid as possible, but with the EV
drivers charging needs to be taken into account.
The objective of smart charging is bi-directional charging. This bi-directional
charging is termed as Vehicle to Grid (V2G).
2.4.1 Benefits of Smart Charging Peak Shaving
Peak shaving refers to flattening or leveling out peak demand by incentivizing
late morning/afternoon charging in systems with large penetration of solar PV.
The goal of peak shaving is the deferment of installation of additional peak
capacity for the supply of peak load.
Ancillary Services
Ancillary services help to balance the transmission system as it moves
electricity from generating resources to retail consumers. Balancing the system
means matching demand and supply while maintaining system frequency to 50
Hz. Frequency regulation is used to control small mismatches between load and
generation in real-time by adjusting the EV charging levels.
2.4.2 Smart Charging Infrastructure
EV batteries require DC power, whereas the distribution grid provides AC
power. So there is a need for AC/DC converter. This converter can be located
in the charging point (off-board charger) or on the vehicle (on-board charger).
The most common power output levels are:
• For low power (up to 22kW) – Level 1 and Level 2 in North America
and slow chargers in Europe (generally on-board charger)
• Intermediary power range (from 22 kW to 50 kW)
• Fast chargers (starting from 50 kW) off-board chargers are deployed
2.4.3 ICT Structure and Development of Communication Protocols
A uniform standard is required for trouble free coordination and desirable for
the whole electric vehicle market. The Open Charge Alliance, founded by E-
laad foundation, Greenlots (North America) and ESB (Ireland), hosts Open
Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) and Open Smart Charging Protocol (OSCP).
The goal of OCPP is to offer a uniform solution for the method of
communication between the charge point and central system. With this protocol,
it allows for connecting any central system with any charge point, regardless of
the vendor. The control mechanism can be enabled by the grid, the charging
point or the vendor itself. A communication system with the grid allows the
charging process to take into account actual grid capabilities as well as
customers’ preferences. Price or control signals can be communicated through
an information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure (for
example, intelligent metering system, communication between charging
stations and back-end systems) in order to allow algorithms to take into
consideration generation and grid constraints, as well as to enable customers to
benefit from price opportunities. The basic function of the OSCP is to
communicate physical net capacity from the site owner to the back office of the
charge spot operator.
The OSCP protocol can be used to communicate a 24 hour prediction of the
locally available capacity to the Charge Spot Operator. The Service Provider
will fill the charging profiles of the electrical vehicles within the boundary of
the available capacity.
2.4.4 Smart Solar Charging Projects Lombok Pilot Project
Utrecht (Netherlands) has become a first bidirectional city in the world. With
the arrival of bidirectional car IONIQ5 by Hyundai and charging stations
capable of charging cars with solar PV, Utrecht has achieved this distinction.
Nearly 500 public charging stations are there in the city and region of Utrecht.
These charging stations charge electric cars with solar PV and can deliver
energy back to the grid.
It all began with the installation of twenty charging poles in the Lombok
neighbourhood of the city of Utrecht (Netherlands). These charging poles were
used by residents who owned an electric car and voluntary participated in the
project. Besides the charging poles, solar PV systems were installed on public
rooftops such as schools. The project's final goal was to create a neighbourhood
energy system where the electric car is charged by solar PV when there was
surplus of solar PV power and discharge the cars via Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
charging poles when there was power shortage.
Parker Project (Denmark)
The Parker project is a Danish project aimed to demonstrate cross-brand V2G
that uses smart charging technology. Three major automotive brands,
Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, PSA Groupe and Nissan, are participating to
demonstrate the provision of frequency regulation services using electric
vehicle and smart charging infrastructure.
Check Your Progress 3
In this section, you studied smart solar charger, now answer the questions given
in Check Your Progress-3.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) Discuss smart solar charging project.
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(2) What are the benefits of smart charging?
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(3) Discuss communication protocols for smart charging.
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2.5 CLEAN ENERGY

Clean energy includes renewable energy, hybrid and co-generation, energy
saved through energy efficiency measures, alternate fuels and energy for
transportation. Renewable energy options include solar energy, wind power,
hydroelectric power, ocean energy, biomass, and geothermal energy. Hybrid
energy systems, as the name suggests, are a combination of multiple energy
systems that generate electricity. The combination of solar energy, wind power
and hydroelectric power is an example of a hybrid energy system. Co-
generation systems are also called combined heat and power (CHP) systems.
Co-generation systems generate electricity as well as useful heat. Alternative
fuels include biodiesel, natural gas and ethanol. Electric vehicle and hybrid
electric vehicle are examples of advanced transportation systems.
What is common with all energy systems discussed above, and how is it
different from fossil fuels based energy? The hallmark of clean energy is low
CO2 emission. CO2 is a green house gas (GHG). Are there other GHGs apart
from CO2? The answer is in affirmative. Water vapour (H2O), methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O) are a few common GHGs. The GHGs just mentioned
occur naturally. Each GHG has a different warming potential. The warming
potential of GHG is measured relative to CO2. The warming potential of
methane is 25 times that of carbon dioxide, and that of nitrous oxide is 298
times that of carbon dioxide. But the presence of methane and nitrous oxide is
in much smaller quantities as compared to carbon dioxide. So carbon dioxide is
the single most important GHG. The task at hand is to decrease CO2 in the
atmosphere due to human activity. At this point, there is a need for clean energy
or low emission technologies. Energy is the dominant source of the problem of
increasing CO2 in the atmosphere, and hence a set of clean energy technologies
are the solution to these problems. The only technology that can decrease the
emission of CO2 from ongoing fossil fuels is Carbon Capture and Storage
(CCS).
2.5.1 Clean Energy Options for Decreasing Emission
Solar Energy
The energy contained in sunlight, called solar energy, can be converted to
electricity. If this energy is converted to electricity directly using devices based
on semiconductor materials, it is called photovoltaics. The energy carried with
sunlight can also be converted into heat. This application is called solar thermal
energy.
The photovoltaic effect can be divided into three basic processes:
 i) Generation of charge carriers due to the absorption of photons in the
materials that form a junction
ii) Subsequent separation of the photo-generated charge carriers in the
junction
iii) Collection of the photo generated charge carriers at the terminal of the
junction: Finally, the charge carriers are extracted from the solar cells
with electrical contacts so that they can perform work in an external
circuit. The chemical energy of the electron-hole pair is finally
converted to electric energy.
Wind Power
Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind into electrical power.
Modern wind turbines are categorized into two basic types, namely the
horizontal axis wind turbine and vertical axis wind turbine.
The main components of the wind turbine are:
- Rotors with rotor blades and hub
- Nacelle
 Drive train with main bearing gearbox, brake and generator
 Power electronics consisting of converters and transformers
The total power available in the wind is equal to the product of mass flow rate,
mw and v2/2.
mw = ρ A v where ρ is the density of air in kg/m3 =1.25kg/m3, A is the area of
the blade in m2 and v is wind velocity in m/s.
  A v 2
Hence, Total Wind Power =  
2
The power available in the wind varies as the cube of wind speed.
Utility scale turbines range in size from 100 kW to several MW. Larger wind
turbines are more cost effective and are grouped together into wind farms,
which provide bulk power to the electrical grid. Small wind turbines below 100
kW are used for homes, telecommunication towers etc.
Hydroelectric Power
In Hydroelectric power, electrical energy is derived from the potential energy
of water moving from higher to lower elevation.
Total electrical power output P = ρ × g × H × 
Where ρ is the density of water (1000 kg/m3), Q is the discharge (m3/s), g is the
acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2), H is the head of water (m), and  is the
efficiency of the conversion process.
Hydro generation can be grouped into three broad categories, run of the river,
high dam hydro (with an inherent storage capacity), and pumped hydro. The
latter two are usually dispatchable, that is there output can be varied to meet the
demand of the system. Pumped hydro storage allows a two way transfer of
energy; energy can be withdrawn from the upper reservoir, and also replaced,
when there is a surplus of the energy on the network.
Hydroelectric power system has six key components:
(i) Dam: It is a barrier that prevents water from flowing downstream, thus
creating a lake behind the dam.
(ii) Reservoir: The dam creates a lake behind its structure called a reservoir.
(iii) Penstock: It is a large pipeline that channels water from the reservoir to the
turbine.
(iv) Turbine: A turbine is an advanced water wheel. The high pressure water
coming from the penstocks pushes against the blades of the turbine,
causing the turbine shaft to rotate. The electrical generator is mounted
directly on the same shaft of the turbine.
(v) Generator: It converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.
(vi) Governor: It is the valve that regulates the main flow of water in the
penstock.
Ocean Energy
Wave Energy: Part of the solar energy received by our planet is converted into
wind energy through the differential heating of the earth. In turn, part of that
wind energy is transferred to the water surface, thereby forming waves. The
amount of energy transferred to waves depends on the wind speed, the duration
of the winds and on the distance over which it blows (known as fetch or fetch
length). The wave energy source is usually expressed in terms of power level,
that is, the amount of energy available in each meter of a wave crest. The usual
units of measurement are kW/m or MW/km. There are three methods of wave
energy conversion.
i) Water-to-air interface: By allowing the wave action to enter a hollow
structure, which has an air chamber above a moveable body of water, the
wave forces the air to move through an air turbine which in turn drives an
electric generator. This is known as an oscillating water column. It is the
method that has been used most often for shoreline sites.
ii) Water action on movable bodies: The wave action causes pitching motion
(heaving or surging) of a solid or flexible body. This motion acts on a
pump, forcing fluid through a hydraulic turbine or hydraulic motor
iii) Water storage method: Waves are channelled along a tapered waterway on
the coast, where seawater is lifted into a confined basin above the normal
sea level. The water is then released back to the sea in a controlled
sluiceway through a low head turbine.
Tidal Energy: An ocean tide refers to the cyclic rise and fall of seawater. Their
occurrence is due to a balance of forces, mainly the gravitational forces of the
moon and sun (both acting together) with that of the earth to balance the
centrifugal force on the water due to the earth’s rotation. Tides are
characterized by their schedule and range. Tidal range is the difference between
water height at high tide and water height at low tide. Tidal day is 24 hours 50
minutes.
Tidal barrages are built across suitable estuaries to extract energy from the rise
and fall of the tides using turbines located in water passage in a barrage. The
potential energy due to the difference in water levels in barrage is converted to
kinetic energy through water moving through a turbine which turns an electric
generator. The average output from a tidal barrage is roughly proportional to
the square of the tidal range.
  A R 2  g
Maximum potential energy available per tide is equal to E 
2
Where ρ is the density of seawater, A is basin area, R is the range
Biomass
Biomass consists of garbage, agricultural waste, and tree plants. Garbage is a
major concern for modern societies. Garbage is often collected and dumped in
landfills which are considered health hazards as they produce unpleasant odours,
contaminate groundwater, and are fire hazards. Hence, the burning of garbage
to produce electricity, that is biomass energy, is a better option.
When biomass is burned in incinerators, the biomass volume is reduced by as
much as 90%, and in the process, steam can be produced to generate electricity.
In a biomass incinerator power plant, biomass is fed to a furnace where it is
burned, and the heat produced is used to generate steam by heating water pipes.
The steam is used to produce electricity by a turbine- generator system much
like the regular thermal power plant. The steam exiting the turbine is cooled to
complete the thermal cycle.
Biomass power plants generate electricity and reduce the amount of material
sent to refills.
Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is the stored heat in the earth’s crust. Broadly speaking,
there are two types of geothermal resources. One is shallow geothermal
resources, and the other one is deep geothermal resources. Shallow geothermal
resources are used for space heating and cooling of commercial and residential
buildings and for residential hot water. Technology to harness shallow
geothermal resources is a geothermal heat pump, also called ground source heat
pump (GSHP). At a few meters below the earth’s surface, the geothermal
temperature in winter is about 10oC-20oC higher than the ambient temperature
and about 10oC-20oC lower in the summer. A typical GSHP system consists of
a geo-exchanger (earth connection subsystem), pump (heat pump subsystem)
and heat distribution system. The geo-exchanger is a series of pipes buried in
the ground near the building to be conditioned. It circulates a fluid (water, or a
mixture of water and antifreeze) that absorbs heat from the surrounding soil
when the ambient air is colder than the soil, i.e. in winter. Likewise, in summer,
it circulates a fluid that releases heat to the surrounding soil. Pumps are used to
circulate the fluid between the geo-exchange and the rest of the system. The
heat distribution system is the conventional ductwork to distribute heated or
cooled air from the geothermal heat pump throughout the building.
Deep geothermal resources provide thermal and electrical (converted thermal)
energy. At a greater depth, the magma (molten rock) has an extremely high
temperature that can produce a tremendous amount of steam suitable for
generating large amounts of electricity. In a typical geothermal power plant, the
steam is extracted from a geothermal reservoir. The steam is then fed to a steam
turbine where steam energy is converted into mechanical energy. This
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by a generator. The steam
exiting the turbine is cooled down in a cooling tower where external cold water
is poured in to create the heat sink to complete the thermal cycle.
Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy is a zero emission clean energy source. It generates power
through fission, which is the process of splitting uranium atoms to produce
energy. The heat released by fission is used to create steam that spins a turbine
to generate electricity without the harmful by-products emitted by fossil fuels.
Nuclear power makes a significant contribution to electricity generation
providing 10% of global electricity in 2018.
Sequestering CO2 through Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS):
Fossil fuels are dominating globally as far as the generation of electricity is
concerned as of now. And the share of fossil fuels in electricity generation is
not going to decline substantially in the foreseeable future. So we need a
technology that can decrease the emissions from fossil fuels. Here comes
carbon capture and storage (CCS). The CO2 is separated from the flue gas
emitted by the power plant (It is the capture of CO2). It is then compressed and
transported through pipelines. Finally, the CO2 is injected through a deep well
into geological formation like oil and gas reservoirs (It is the storage part of
CCS).
2.5.2 Clean Energy for Transportation
Globally 23 per cent of green house gases were generated by vehicles run on oil
as fuel in 2014. Clean energy can help in reducing CO2 emission from vehicles
run on oil. For transportation, alternative fuel and advanced vehicle
technologies can be used. These alternative fuels can be ethanol, biodiesel or
natural gas. Advanced vehicle technologies used can be hybrid vehicles (HV)
that have both internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor, Plug-in
hybrid vehicles (PHV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV) that can be charged
from the electricity grid, and Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) that drive electric motor
from electricity generated from a fuel cell. Vehicles run on Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG), and hydrogen fuel may be alternative to fossil fuels.
2.5.3 Clean Energy for Heating and Cooling
A substantial amount of CO2 emissions come from the building sectors.
Heating and cooling of the building take sufficient energy and thus are a source
of CO2 emissions. Geothermal systems in the form of a ground source heat
pump (GSHP) for heating and cooling can be used to reduce emissions. Further,
a solar water heater can be used for space heating and/or hot water.
Check Your Progress 4
In this section, you studied clean energy, now answer the questions given in
Check Your Progress-4.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) How clean energy is different from fossil fuel?
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(2) What are clean energy options for the transport sector?
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(3) Enumerate various clean energy sources.
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2.6 SMART LIGHTING
The world is witnessing the transition of conventional analogue lighting to
digital lighting. The conventional analogue lighting was dominated by
incandescent and gas discharge based lighting technologies. Digital lighting is
represented by light emitting diode (LED) lighting technology. LEDs are easy
to control, dim and switch, and easy to combine with sensors into smart lighting
systems. Smart lighting is also known as intelligent lighting or adaptive lighting.
Smart lighting systems are a key component of smart homes, smart buildings
and smart cities.
Smart lighting is a technology catering to the needs of energy efficiency and
working moods in a building with minimal human intervention. Smart lighting
uses occupancy, day light, colour and other sensors along with automatic
instrumentation and control systems to create changes in light quality as
demanded by the situation. By automatically adjusting the light level, or turning
it on and off when not needed, a lot of energy wastage can be prevented.
For building a smart lighting system, each light source must be connected to a
computer- controlled network, preferably a wireless sensor network with a
unique address affixed to it. The lighting conditions must be programmed in the
computer, and after receiving a signal from the sensors, the actuators must
respond, bringing the required conditions. Thus smart lighting is a technology
operating through computer controlled, wireless sensor network to meet the
programmed lighting demand. This is one of the approaches of smart lighting
system. The other approach could be that of individual or distributed smart
lighting system.
The Idea of smart lighting incorporates two technologies, that is, LEDs and the
Internet of things (IoTs). LEDs or Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor
devices that emit light when a voltage is applied. LEDs can be designed to emit
in different colour bands such as blue, red or even infrared. From the
application in electronics as indicators since the 1970s, LEDs have made a
strong foothold in industrial and household lighting applications.
In simple words, connecting physical things to the internet is the Internet of
Things. Internet of things would enable a wide range of devices to interact with
each other or the server, transfer data and interact with humans and
surroundings to perform their task. For illustration sake, imagine you have an
air conditioner that is overheating recently. You, as a user, might not notice it
until it fails. However, an IoT enabled system will diagnose the issue and notify
you. Naturally, IoT requires devices to be connected to a network and have
sensors to collect the relevant data and statistics.
2.6.1 Why Smart Lighting?
Following are the goals of smart lighting:
(i) Reduce energy consumption: Smart lighting systems can identify when
rooms or buildings are unoccupied. Thus it will eliminate any human errors
that cause energy wastage.
(ii) Enhance control mechanism: Smart lighting would allow users to
remotely control the lighting infrastructure of their homes and workplaces.
Apart from that, automatic adjustments in street lighting brightness based
on the ambient light can be ensured.
(iii) Account for human factors such as circadian rhythms: Our body
responds differently to different colours of light. For example, blue light
has a strong effect on sleep and causes problems in falling asleep. So a
 smart lighting system would adjust the spectrum such that it has a
minimum blue component and more red and yellow components during
bedtime.
(iv) Account for external factors: A smart lighting system would be able to
sense ambient brightness and accordingly adjust its own brightness to
provide optimum lighting. For example reducing the brightness of lights
near the window during the day.
2.6.1 IoT in Smart Lighting Systems:
Integration of IoT with LEDs has been depicted in the following three steps.
Environment Sensing: A set of sensors, including sensors, such as ambient
light sensors and motion detection sensors, map out the environment. The
response of these sensors will be used to determine the answer to the decision
questions, such as what brightness should the LED have? Should the lighting
system be on? For optimal results, we must ensure that response of ambient
light sensors is similar to the human eye to ensure comfortable illumination.
Motion detector sensors should be able to detect, for example a man walking
down an aisle or a person walking out of the room.
Running algorithms to determine best configuration/parameters: Once the
sensors collect the data, the data has to be processed, and a decision has to be
made. This decision can be made on the device, or the data can be transferred to
a cloud server that runs the optimization algorithms and communicates the
decision that needs to be taken. For example, if the light is programmed to
reduce the blue colour component after 8 o'clock, the bulb may frequently
contact the server for time or keep its own time. Often one has to deal with a
whole system of lights (for examples, light on a particular floor of a building).
In such a case, one can have a local server that communicates with each node (a
node being one independent LED), or the nodes can communicate with each
other, passing on information.
Intelligent UI: Lastly, a smart lighting system would give users flexible control
over the lighting systems. In the case of industries and workspaces, it would
mean a more intuitive control system.
2.6.2 Applications of Smart Lighting:
 An outdoor public lighting system
 Vehicle safety lighting
 Positioning system
 Indoor illumination and communication
2.6.3 Advantages of Smart Lighting:
The advantages of smart lighting are as follows:
 Energy saving
 Reduced maintenance cost
 Burn hour optimization
 High uptime and immediate fault localization
 Generation of automatic statistics for historical data analysis
Check Your Progress 5
In this section, you studied smart lighting, now answer the questions given in
Check Your Progress-5.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) What is smart lighting?
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(2) What are the advantages of smart lighting?
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(3) What are the goals of smart lighting?
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2.7 BATTERY STORAGE

Why Battery storage? The world is witnessing energy transition from fossil fuel
based energy to clean energy. This will see increased penetration of variable
renewable energy sources (VRES) in the energy mix of a country. With the
penetration of VRES like wind and solar, supply side of energy will show
variability and fluctuation. To manage this variability and fluctuation due to the
penetration of VRES, Battery Storage is one of the best options. Battery storage
has the capability to play an effective role in all components of power systems.
Whether it be generation, transmission, distribution or end-use, Battery Storage
is there to address problems arising due to fluctuation, variability or capacity
building deferral. The presence of Battery Storage in various components of the
power system can be seen in Figure 2.2. Battery Storage is available in the form
of a large-scale supply-side plant. As a supply-side plant, Battery Storage is
capable of participation in various grid applications, viz. frequency control,
load leveling, and arbitrage. Another application of Battery Storage is
Renewable Capacity Firming. As you know, the power output from VRES like
solar and wind is intermittent in nature. For meeting a commitment to the grid
and offsetting variability in their output, Battery storage plays a key role.
Combining VRES generation and Battery Storage, the constant output can be
fed to the grid. This combination of Renewable Generation and Battery Storage
is Renewable Capacity Firming. Battery Storage can also be used in
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) deferral. When peak load exceeds the
load carrying capacity of a specific utility’s distribution system, Battery Storage
can be added to avoid overloading, and thus deferring immediate T&D capacity
addition.
Battery Storage has an important role to play in the transport sector. Indian
Government aims to make India a 100 per cent electric vehicle nation by 2030.
As you have seen in the energy storage mission that all three wheelers sold after
March 31, 2023 should be electric vehicles, and all two wheelers below 150 cc
sold in the country after March 31, 2025 should also be an electric vehicle. The
intent is clear as far as the shift in technology in the transport sector is
concerned. There may be a debate on roll out of infrastructure like charging
stations necessary within this timeframe. Mobility and Battery Storage will
move hand in hand.

Figure 2.2: Battery Storage Embedded with Various Components of Power

System
2.7.1 Components of Battery Energy Storage System
Following are the main components of a battery energy storage system:
i) Battery System
ii) Power Conversion System
iii) Energy Management System
The Battery System consists of a battery pack and a battery management
system (BMS). A set of battery cells make a battery module, and a set of battery
modules make a battery pack. The BMS ensures that battery cells operate
within their prescribed operating ranges for the state of charge (SoC), voltage,
current, and temperature. Thus primary job of the BMS is to protect the battery
from damage.
The Power conversion system (PCS) directs the flow of energy by commanding
the battery’s charge and discharge behaviour. Power Conversion System (PCS)
is the intermediary device between battery pack (DC) and power grid(AC). PCS
is a bidirectional power conversion device that can convert batteries DC power
into AC power to feed the grid and also enables grid power to DC to charge DC
battery.
The Energy management system (EMS) is responsible for system power flow
control, management and distribution. The EMS communicates directly with
the PCS and BMS to provide high level coordination of the various components
on-site, often by referencing external data points.
2.7.2 Characteristics of Grid Scale Battery Storage
Storage batteries like Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) and Sodium-Sulfur (Na-S) have a
quick response time of the order of milliseconds. Li-ion batteries have the
highest energy density. These batteries have relatively good overall efficiency.
Various characteristics of these batteries are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Characteristics of Battery Storage

Technology Power rating Cycles Discharge Overall efficiency

(MW) time

Li-ion 1-100 1500-4500 m-h 0.85-0.95

NaS 0.05-8 2500-4500 s-h 0.75-0.90

Lead acid Up to 20 2000-4500 s-h 0.70-0.90

2.7.3 Grid Applications of Battery Storage

Key challenges in grid management are the reliability and stability of the grid.
Battery Storage has a fast response time of the order of a millisecond. Services
necessary to support grid operations in maintaining reliability and stability are
termed as grid ancillary services. Grid ancillary services have been listed in
Fig.3.
In the electricity grid, demand and supply of energy have to be equal all times.
If generation exceeds demand, the frequency will rise. If the generation is less
than demand, the frequency will drop. For stable grid operation, Transmission
System Operator (TSO) (also called Independent System Operator (ISO)) has to
procure balancing power. The grid service that helps to counter fluctuation in
short term demand and supply is known as Regulation-up services if
accomplished by an increase in the generation or decrease in the load to
counteract the fluctuation or Regulation-down services if accomplished by a
decrease in the generation or increase in the load to counteract the fluctuation.
Primary frequency regulation ancillary service is the fastest measure to control
frequency. Primary frequency regulation ancillary service is fully activated
within 30 seconds and ends at 15 minutes. Secondary frequency regulation gets
fully activated in 15 minutes and remains there as long as desired by TSO/ISO.
Tertiary frequency regulation gets fully activated in a short time. Operating
Reserves are classified into spinning reserve and non-spinning reserve. The
word spinning signifies that generation capacity (generator) is online. This
generation capacity is online but unloaded/partially loaded and can respond
within 10 minutes to compensate for generation or transmission outages.
A battery storage system can balance generation and demand and thus can
ensure frequency stability. The storage system is usually connected to the grid
by the converter. The converter controls frequency and voltage and changes the
direction of power flow in milliseconds.
 Figure 2.3: Listing of Various Ancillary Services
2.7.4 Battery Storage Applications in Renewable Integration
What are the barriers to the integration of Variable Renewable Energy Sources
(VRES) like wind power and solar power to the grid despite their various
environmental benefits? The most obvious one is the intermittency of
generation from these sources as they cause voltage and frequency fluctuation
in the grid. It is estimated that for every 10% penetration of VRES like solar
and wind in the grid needs to be supported by the addition of conventional
sources in the range of 2%-4%. This complexity can be avoided by the
introduction of battery storage in the grid, thus ensuring grid balancing.
Check Your Progress 6
In this section, you studied battery storage, now answer the questions given in
Check Your Progress-6.
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
(1) What are various grid applications of battery storage?
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(2) What are the components of a battery storage system?
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(3) How battery storage can help in T&D deferral?
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2.1 Check Your Progress 1 – Possible Answers
1) What are the core objectives of smart storage mission?
The core objective of the Mission (National mission on transformative mobility
and battery storage) is to obtain comprehensive connectedness in policy
framework to promote mobility and storage in India.
2) What are the roadmaps of smart storage mission?
The roadmap envisioned for the storage has been spelt as below:
 A phased roadmap to implement battery manufacturing at Giga-scale
will be considered with an initial focus on the large-scale module and
pack assembly plants by 2019-20, followed by integrated cell
manufacturing by 2021-22.
 Details of the Phased Manufacturing Plan (PMP) for Batteries shall be
formulated by the Mission. The Mission will ensure the holistic and
comprehensive growth of the battery manufacturing industry in India.
Check Your Progress 2 – Possible Answers
1) What are grid applications for storage technologies?
Some of the applications of energy storage technologies for grid support
include grid ancillary services and arbitrage. Grid ancillary services help in
maintaining power quality, reliability and security of the grid. They are needed
to balance random fluctuations caused by a difference in supply and demand.
These services need to be activated from a few seconds to several minutes. Grid
ancillary services can be classified into frequency control services, voltage
control services, and emergency services.
2) What are the components of smart storage technologies? Smart storage
systems consist of:
 Batteries
 Inverters
 Protective switchgear
 Control and measurement system.
Every string of battery system (battery and BMS) has its own battery
management module. The battery management module keeps track of the state
of charge (SoC) of batteries, voltage and temperature and safety of battery
operation. Remotely operated power breaker switch and synchro-check are the
part of switchgear. Control, Measurement and Data Collection is the heart of
the smart storage system. This is the component that transforms the storage
device into smart storage. Three functional components of control,
measurement and data collection are controller, measurement and data
collection. A controller is capable of executing advanced control algorithms.
For control and data collection purposes, power flows are measured throughout
the system. The server hardware is also used as a sink for logging purposes.
3) Discuss the classification of Storage Technologies.
Energy storage technologies are classified into four classes depending upon the
physical way of energy storage. These are: Mechanical Energy Storage,
Electrical Energy Storage, Chemical Energy Storage and Thermal Energy
Storage. Mechanical energy storage consists of pumped hydro energy storage
(PHES), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and Flywheels. Electrical
energy storage includes supercapacitors and superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES). Chemical energy storage includes batteries and fuel cells.
Check Your Progress 3 – Possible Answers
1) Discuss smart solar charging project.
Nearly 500 public charging stations are there in the city and region of Utrecht
(Netherlands). These charging stations charge electric cars with solar PV and
can deliver energy back to the grid. It all began with the installation of twenty
charging poles in the Lombok neighbourhood of the city of Utrecht
(Netherlands). These charging poles were used by residents who owned an
electric car and voluntary participated in the project.
Besides the charging poles, solar PV systems were installed on public rooftops
such as schools. The final goal of the project was to create a neighbourhood
energy system where the electric car is charged by solar PV when there was a
surplus of solar PV power and discharge the cars via Vehicle to Grid (V2G)
charging poles when there was power shortage.
2) What are the benefits of smart charging?
Smart charging can be used in Peak shaving and different Ancillary services.
Peak shaving refers to flattening or leveling out peak demand by incentivizing
late morning/afternoon charging in systems with large penetration of solar PV.
The goal of peak shaving is the deferment of installation of additional peak
capacity for the supply of peak load.
Ancillary services help to balance the transmission system as it moves
electricity from generating resources to retail consumers. Balancing the system
means matching demand and supply while maintaining system frequency to 50
Hz. Frequency regulations are used to control small mismatches between load
and generation in real time by adjusting the EV charging levels.
3) Discuss communication protocols for smart charging.
A uniform standard is required for trouble free coordination, and desirable for
the whole electric vehicle market. The Open Charge Alliance hosts Open
Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) and Open Smart Charging Protocol (OSCP).
The goal of OCPP is to offer a uniform solution for the method of
communication between the charge point and central system. With this protocol,
it allows for connecting any central system with any charge point, regardless of
the vendor. The control mechanism can be enabled by the grid, the charging
point or the vendor itself. A communication system with the grid allows the
charging process to take into account actual grid capabilities as well as
customers’ preferences. Price or control signals can be communicated through
an information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure (for
example, intelligent metering system, communication between charging
stations and back-end systems) in order to allow algorithms to take into
consideration generation and grid constraints, as well as to enable customers to
benefit from price opportunities.
Check Your Progress 4 – Possible Answers
1) How is clean energy different from fossil fuel?
The hallmark of clean energy is low CO2 emission. Clean energy includes
renewable energy, hybrid and co-generation, energy saved through energy
efficiency measures, alternate fuels and energy for transportation. Renewable
energy options include solar energy, wind power, hydroelectric power, ocean
energy, biomass, and geothermal energy. Hybrid energy systems, as the name
suggests, are a combination of multiple energy systems that generate electricity.
The combination of solar energy, wind power and hydroelectric power is an
example of a hybrid energy system. Co-generation systems are also called
combined heat and power (CHP) systems. Co-generation systems generate
electricity as well as useful heat. Alternative fuels include biodiesel, natural gas
and ethanol. Electric vehicle and hybrid electric vehicle are examples of
advanced transportation systems. All above mentioned energy systems are
based on low CO2 emission qualities. It is the CO2 emission that distinguishes
clean energy and fossil fuel.
2) What are the clean energy options for the transport sector?
For the transport sector, alternative fuel and advanced vehicle technologies can
be used. These alternative fuels can be ethanol, biodiesel or natural gas.
Advanced vehicle technologies used can be hybrid vehicles (HV) that have both
internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric motor, Plug-in hybrid vehicles
(PHV) and battery electric vehicles (BEV) that can be charged from the
electricity grid, and Fuel cell vehicles (FCV) that drive electric motor from
electricity generated from the fuel cell. Vehicles run on Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG), and hydrogen fuel may be alternative to fossil fuels.
3) Enumerate various clean energy sources.
Following are some of the clean energy options for reduced CO2 emission:
1. Renewable Energy: Solar power, Wind power, Wave Energy, Tidal
Energy, Biomass, Hydropower, Geothermal Energy
2. Other Sources: Nuclear Energy, Sequestering CO2 through Carbon
Capture Storage (CCS)
Check Your Progress 5 – Possible Answers
1) What is smart lighting?
Smart lighting is a technology catering to the needs of energy efficiency and
working moods or temperament in a building with minimal human intervention.
Smart lighting uses occupancy, day light, colour and other sensors along with
automatic instrumentation and control systems to create changes in light quality
as demanded by the situation.
2) What are the advantages of smart lighting?
The advantages of smart lighting are as follows:
 Energy saving
 Reduced maintenance cost
 Burn hour optimization
 High uptime and immediate fault localization
 Generation of automatic statistics for historical data analysis
3) Why there is a need for smart lighting? Smart lighting serves the
following purposes:
 Reduce energy consumption
 Enhance control mechanism
 Account for human factors such as circadian rhythms (a natural, internal
process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24
hours)
Check Your Progress 6 – Possible Answers
1) What are various grid applications of battery storage? Following are the
grid applications of energy storage:
 Frequency control services
 Voltage control services
 Emergency services
Frequency control services can further be classified into Frequency Regulation,
Load Following, and Operating reserves. The grid service that helps to counter
fluctuation in short term demand and supply is known as Regulation-up
services if accomplished by an increase in the generation or decrease in the load
to counteract the fluctuation. The grid service that helps to counter fluctuation
in short term demand and supply is known as Regulation-down services if
accomplished by a decrease in the generation or increase in the load to
counteract the fluctuation. Frequency regulation services come into action in
seconds and stay there for minutes depending upon the type of Frequency
regulation ancillary services deployed.
2) What are the components of a battery storage system?
Following are the main components of a battery energy storage system:
• Battery System
• Power Conversion System
• Energy Management System
The battery System consists of a battery pack (a set of battery cells make a
battery module, and a set of battery modules make a battery pack) and a Battery
Management System (BMS). The basic functions of BMS are battery protection
and showing state of charge (SoC). Power Conversion System (PCS) is the
intermediary device between battery pack (DC) and power grid(AC). PCS is a
bidirectional power conversion device that can convert batteries DC power into
AC power to feed the grid and also enables grid power to DC to charge DC
battery. The EMS communicates directly with the PCS and BMS to provide
high level coordination of the various components on-site, often by referencing
external data points.
3) How can battery storage help in T&D deferral?
Upgrading and deferring existing wires and substations may be the most
common application of battery storage for transmission and distribution. When
peak load exceeds the load carrying capacity of a specific utility’s distribution
system, Battery Storage can be added to avoid overloading, and thus deferring
immediate T&D capacity addition.

2.9 REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS

1. Asian Development Bank (2018). Handbook on Battery Energy Storage
System. Available at:
[Link]
battery-energy- [Link] (Accessed: May 08, 2021)
2. Barve, V. (2017). Smart lighting for smart cities. 2017 IEEE Region 10
Symposium (TENSYMP). doi:10.1109/tenconspring.2017.8070000
3. IRENA (2019). Innovation Outlook: Smart Charging for Electric Vehicles.
Available at: [Link]
Outlook-Smart-Charging (Accessed: April 25, 2021
4. J. Brooke, Wave Energy Conversion, Elsevier Science, 2003
5. National mission on transformative mobility and battery storage. [Press
Release].Available at:
[Link] (Accessed:
May 10, 20210).
6. NITI Aayog (2019. Notification dated 08 March 2019 on National Mission
on Transformative Mobility and Battery Storage. Available at:
[Link]
pdf (Accessed: May 11, 2021).
7. P.E. Cook, Clean Energy, Climate and Carbon, CSIRO Publishing, 2012.
8. US Department of Commerce, Clean Energy: An Exporter’s Guide to India,
2008
UNIT 3 MICRO AND SMART GRID
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Micro Grids
3.3 Smart Grids
3.4 Renewable Systems
3.5 Prognostics, Energy Management Systems
3.6 Smart Metering
3.7 References and Further Readings
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Micro grids are localized networks that can disconnect from the traditional
network to operate independently.
Microgrids enable the integration of growing deployments of distributed
energy resources such as renewables such as solar, resulting in a more flexible
and efficient electric grid is as shown in Figure 3.1. Furthermore, using local
energy sources to service local loads helps decrease energy losses in
transmission and distribution, boosting the efficiency of the electric delivery
system.

Figure 3.1: The Role of Microgrids in Helping to Advance the Nation’s Energy
System
The Energy Department offers a diverse portfolio of operations focused on the
development and deployment of microgrids to increase grid stability and
resiliency, assist communities in better preparing for future weather
catastrophes, and keep the country on track toward a clean energy future.
(System, 2019)
Microgrids help power networks become more flexible and efficient by
incorporating the increased deployment of distributed energy sources (such as
renewable energy). In addition, the use of local energy to provide services for
local loads helps reduce energy loss in the transmission and distribution
process, and further improves the efficiency of the distribution system. (energy,
2021)
When addressing how technology is effecting the generation and consumption
of energy, the word "smart grid" is frequently used as a generic term, however
it is rather ambiguous. Technology influences energy usage in a variety of
ways and on a variety of levels, and the term "smart grid" is meaningless to the
majority of building owners. However, owners and property managers should
get acquainted with a related idea known as the microgrid. (InBuilding
Magazine, 2021)
While a smart grid is a modernized grid that uses information and
communication technologies to collect and exploit information, such as
insights into supplier and consumer behaviour, according to automated way to
improve the performance, efficiency, reliability, economy and sustainability of
power generation and distribution. Transmission and operation: extensive
monitoring, control and protection. (researchgate, 2021)
A smart grid serves several purposes, and the transition from traditional
electric grids to smart grids is being driven by a number of factors, including
energy market deregulation, evolutions in metering, changes in the level of
electricity production, decentralisation (distributed energy), the advent of the
involved 'prosumer,' changing regulations, the rise of microgeneration and
(isolated) microgrids, renewable energy mandates with more energy sources,
and new points (e.g. electrical vehicle charging points).
An electrical grid, also known as an electric grid, is a network that transports
electricity from the producer(s) and the locations where it is generated and
transformed (power plants and substations) to the final destinations where
electricity is 'consumed': homes, businesses, various facilities, and the
consumer in general. (industry-4-0/smart-grids-electrical-grid/, 2021)
3.2 MICRO GRIDS
As shown in Figure 3.2, a micro-grid is a local energy grid with control
capability, which means that it can disconnect from the traditional grid and
operate on its own.
The grid is a system that connects houses, businesses, and other structures to
centralised power sources, allowing us to utilise household appliances, heating
and cooling systems, and gadgets. But this interconnection means that when
one part of the network needs to be fixed, everyone is affected.

Figure 3.2: Micro Grid Diagram

A micro-grid usually works when connected to the grid, but more importantly,
it can shut down and operate on its own using local power generation in times
of crisis like storms or power outages, or for other reasons.
Distributed generators, batteries, and/or renewable resources such as solar
panels can all be used to power a micro-grid.
A micro-grid connects to the main grid at a common location and maintains
the same voltage level as the main grid. A switch is used which can detach the
microgrid from the main network, which eventually functions as an island.
It is helpful in providing network backup in emergencies and is also beneficial
in cost reduction to connect to a local resource. Thus, a micro grid makes small
communities self-sustaining and independent. (energy, 2021)
3.3 SMART GRIDS
“The grid” refers to the power grid, a network of transmission lines,
substations, transformers and which combined carries electricity from the
power plant to us. The current power grid was built in the late 1800s and has
improved since then. At present, it comprises of around 9,200 power
generating units with the power generating capacity of over one million
megawatts, connected to over 300,000 miles of transmission lines.

Figure 3.3: Smart grid Diagram

Smart grid as shown in Figure 3.3, brings the opportunity to enhance the
energy industry that can help to build the environmental and economic health
globally. During the transition period, it will be essential to carry out testing,
technological improvements, consumer education, development of standards
and regulations, and information sharing between projects to ensure that the
benefits we envision of the Smart Grid becomes true. (Smartgrid, 2021)
3.4 RENEWABLE SYSTEMS
The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:
i) Solar energy - Solar energy is used around the world and is increasingly
popular to generate electricity or to heat and desalinate water. Solar
energy is produced in two main ways: Photovoltaics (PV), Concentrated
solar energy (CSP)
 ii) Wind energy - Wind is a renewable energy source that is clean, free,
and easily available. Wind turbines capture the wind's energy and
convert it to electricity every day all around the world. Wind power
generation is becoming more significant in how we power our planet -
in a clean and sustainable way.
iii) Hydro energy - Hydropower, often known as hydroelectric power, is a
renewable energy source that produces electricity by altering the natural
flow of a river or other body of water using a dam or diversion
construction.
iv) Tidal energy - Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy that is
derived from the natural rise and fall of ocean tides and currents.
Turbines and paddles are two examples of these technology. The surge
of ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides generates tidal energy.
Tidal power is a renewable energy source.
v) Geothermal energy - Geothermal energy is heat that exists within the
earth's crust. Because heat is constantly created inside the ground,
geothermal energy is a renewable energy source. Geothermal heat is
used for bathing, heating houses, and generating energy.
vi) Biomass energy - Biomass is a sustainable energy source that is both
clean and efficient. The sun provides the initial energy, and plants or
algae biomass may regenerate in a very short period of time. Trees,
crops, and municipal solid trash are all accessible on a regular basis and
may be managed in a sustainable manner.
Energy storage systems (ESS) are fundamental when it comes to renewable
energy resources integrated into smart grids. The variability of these resources
can be mitigated through effective operation of ESSs. Energy systems store
excess energy during off-peak periods and release it during peak hours.
Conventional storage technologies can provide many applications in electrical
systems in addition to their primary functions. The diagrams of operation of
energy storage devices are intensively designed for respective exclusive
applications.
Their inherent degraded efficiencies and high investment costs are still
questionable despite rapid developments in other areas, due to electric vehicles
(EVs). Therefore, their operation and size must be carefully optimized.
In the development of ancillary services, electric vehicles (EVs) can be used as
an independent energy source. Once the EV is parked, the energy can be
recovered in the network (Vehicle to Grid V2G). Fixed or mobile energy
storage systems can be deployed to provide sufficient spare capacity for
ancillary service purposes.
3.5 PROGNOSTICS, ENERGY MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
Energy is a main resource of all industrial works, where it is consumed and
related to the final useful output of the same process (product or services). To
calculate this input / output ratio, an energy efficiency indicator is usually used,
based on the common concept of thermodynamic efficiency.
Total Energy Imput
Energy Efficiency Indicator (EEI) = EEI 
Useful Output
Where: E is the total energy input used, 0 is the useful output in physical units.
Total energy used includes all types of energy sources (gas, fuels, electricity,
etc.) and all types of physical outputs must be converted into a single unit
(kilometre of displacement, tone of cement, volume of water, etc.).
Conventionally, the concept of prognosis deals with the prediction of the RUL
(Remaining Useful Life) of individual components and / or systems. This RUL
is calculated from the current situation, several influencing factors impacting
future operation (e.g. impacts on degradation laws, operating modes), a
threshold (before the failure) and models to extrapolate or project the current
situation to cross the threshold. Thus, it corresponds to the estimated time until
failure, which can be used for decision support.
Data-driven approaches use the information from the learned data to assess the
current EEL and predict its future trend. Data-driven approaches can be
classified into two large groups: statistical approaches (regression, support
vector machines, gamma processes, hidden Markov model, etc.) and artificial
intelligence approaches (fuzzy logic, neural networks, etc.). The proposed
prognostic approach focuses on the first group and is divided into 3 stages:
In the first step of the approach, this is done by acquiring / monitoring all
relevant data available at the different layers of the application. Before this
step, it is a question of setting up the instrument capable of collecting this data.
These data are representative of two categories. The first category is linked to
the data representative of the input energy, the useful outputs (2) and (5) in
coherence with the addressed layer. The second category is related to data
representative of the layer context such as operating modes, maintenance
events, failure events, mission, etc.
In the second step of the process, various previously acquired data must be
identified, classified and transformed in terms of variables. This step is not so
easy to perform if the amount of data is too large requiring a long processing
time (data mining) to transform the data into variables / parameters. Indeed,
from the values and changes in the data, the most important parameters that
can impact the EEI of energy objects must be highlighted (relationships
between input parameters and useful output parameters). However, most of the
time, the power consumption and the output function are highly nonlinear in
structure, resulting in a lack of mathematical formulation between the
parameters. In addition, these identified key parameters must be set for each
simulation period and their relationships also depend on the deterioration /
degradation threshold, etc. However, at the end of this second step, models
must be defined to support these relationships. It is proposed in this work to
use modelling tools such as multiple or nonlinear linear regression or support
vector machine methods. Additional aggregation models might also be needed
to support the path between the component and the system levels.
In the third step of the approach, the models defined in the previous step 2 can
be used now for making prognostics on EEP by considering mainly the
deterioration/degradation influence factors. Indeed, not only at the component
level but also at the function/system level, the EEI can be calculated from
projected situations. In that way, some function/system features (e. g.
architecture) can be considered to impact the weighting factor of energy
consumption and to quantify the output of each component at a field level.
 Figure 3.4: Model for TELMA
The energy efficiency idea and recommended prognostic technique are
implemented on the TELMA e-maintenance platform as shown in Figure 3.4.
TELMA is based on a real-world industrial application, such as punching steel
sheet shapes or compressing steel forms. TELMA is capable of unwinding
metal bobbins and is made up of four sub-systems: changing bobbin, advance
motor drive (MOl), accumulator motor drive (MD2), and punching-cutting.
(Hoang, 2015)

Figure 3.5: Structure of the platform TELMA

To improve the accuracy of the energy efficiency assessment, all forms of
input energy (for example, electricity, coal, and steam) must be specified.
Furthermore, the connections between the physical system, the process
sequence, and the management plan must be articulated and integrated. Only
electrical energy is addressed in this case study as a distinct energy supply for
the TELMA system. Only the function of the platform permitting the punching
of steel sheet is covered in this study. This function is provided by the
accumulator and advance motor drives as shown in Figure 3.5, which are two
of the most energy-consuming components. These two motors are physically
similar, and each component is made up of several components such as an
electrical motor and a variable speed driver (and an electromagnetic brake to
simulate failure). The two motors are functionally independent: the first
maintains cutting steel sheet productivity, while the second maintains steel
sheet stress. The function's useful physical output is the number of products
per minute, whereas the accumulator and advance motor's useful physical
output is the number of rotations. These beneficial outputs may be altered,
monitored, and recorded. (Hoang, 2015)
Each motor drive's energy usage may be monitored and recorded. By varying
the force of an electromagnetic brake that is directly linked to the roller, the
impact of bearing wear and mechanical gears is recreated. It should be noted
that the electrical consumption of each motor is mostly determined by the
setting speed and the force of the electromagnetic brake. (Hoang, 2015)
The electrical consumption of the motor is monitored and recorded for various
values of the electromagnetic braking force and motor output speed. The
electromagnetic brake has a force that ranges from 0% to 100%. (the motor
drive is considered failed at 100 percent). The motor's output speed is
adjustable from 300 to 1800 r/min. It is demonstrated that the motor's speed
and degradation degree have a substantial impact on its energy consumption.
(Hoang, 2015)
By comparing the (learned) EEI with a pre-setting threshold, the REEL, at the
function/system level, can be determined as well as the predicted EEI value of
each component. (Hoang, 2015)
3.6 SMART METERING
Smart metering is one of the essential operations in smart grid infrastructures.
Smart meters are upgraded versions of conventional power meters which are
developed after Automated Meter Reading (AMR) and Automated Metering
Infrastructure (AMI) improvements. Smart metres have extensive ICT
interfaces, allowing them to be highly smart and comprehensive. Smart metres
can compute many characteristics such as power factor or THD, as well as
anticipate energy usage at certain intervals, in addition to metering operations.
It also allows customers to remotely monitor and regulate their home energy,
in addition to the remote-control functions utilised by Meter Data Management
System (MDMS).

Figure 3.6: Smart Grid Infrastructure

Smart meters are also defined as smart outlets because of their ability to
distribute from the residential grid to homes. Because it measures energy spent,
electricity demand rates, and network power quality, AMI is utilised to
develop smart meter-based infrastructure with smart grid applications as
shown in Figure 3.6. Typical features of smart metering applications are listed
as two-way communication between network and smart meter, capability of
recording data at intervals of 10-60 min, at least daily data transmission to the
monitoring centre, a built-in remote disconnect switch, Home Area Network
(HAN) interface and data, storage capacity for faults, voltage and current
values, and secure data communication infrastructure.
(sciencedirect, 2021)
The latest smart meter research has focused on power quality issues such as
automatic voltage restoration, frequency and voltage control, active and
reactive power control, Demand Side Management (DSM), decentralized
generation in the context of microgrid and cyber-secure communication
systems. The metering section is made up of three main subsections which are
AMR, DMS and Time of Use (TOU) pricing, while the communication system
includes control infrastructure and network connection interfaces such as HAN
and WAN including Home Energy Management System (HEMS). The
communication interface can provide wired and / or wireless communication
methods that allow two-way data flow between the user and the Distribution
System Operators (DSO). In addition to the two main sections of a smart meter,
it can also include auxiliary modules such as power supply, controller,
measurement and data acquisition interface, timer, protection devices, control
module, etc. 'data recording and encoding / decoding modules. The data
logging module which is essential for smart meters provides data storage
capacity for consumer information such as identification, energy usage logs,
and time stamp and fault records. The measurement section includes an analog
interface that interacts with the network to connect residential wiring to the
distribution network and is equipped with voltage and current transducers to
install the measurement interface. The billing module is associated with the
synchronization module to generate TOU pricing data with time stamp.
(esmig, 2021)
SAQ 1
(a) What is the difference between micro grid and smart grid?
(b) What is the concept of prognostics in energy management
systems?
(c) Explain briefly the three stages of prognostic approach towards
energy management.
(d) How does a smart meter works in smart grid infrastructure?
3.7 REFERENCES

energy. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from [Link]:
[Link]
modernization-and-smart-grid/role-microgrids-helping
energy. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from [Link]:
[Link]
esmig. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from [Link]:
[Link]
Hoang, A. &. (2015). Prognostics on energy efficiency performance for
maintenance decision-making: Application to industrial platform
TELMA.
InBuilding Magazine. (2021). media/news/articles/what-difference-between-
microgrid-and-smart-grid. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]
microgrid-and-smart-grid
industry-4-0/smart-grids-electrical-grid/. (2021). Retrieved from
[Link] [Link]
grids-electrical-grid/
researchgate. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from
[Link]: [Link]
difference-between-a-microgrid-and-a-smartgrid
sciencedirect. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from
[Link]:
[Link]
Smartgrid. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from
[Link]:
[Link]
System, T. R. (2019). [Link]
development/grid-modernization-and-smart-grid/role-microgrids-
helping. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]
modernization-and-smart-grid/role-microgrids-helping
Unit 4 INTRODUCTION TO SCADA
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Concept of SCADA in Energy Transmission
4.3 Utility Shifting and Underground Cabling
4.4 Thermal Energy, LPG, PNG, CNG Supply
4.5 References and Further Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems are one of the
types of control systems under the general term of Industrial Control System
(ICS). They are used in critical infrastructure and industrial sectors. The main
functions of SCADA are data acquisition, data processing for operator use, and
operator control of remote devices.

Figure 4.1: SCADA system

Data acquisitions, transmission systems, and human-machine interface (HMI)
software are all combined in a SCADA system as shown in Figure 4.1, to serve
as a centralised control and monitoring system for various inputs and outputs.
The information collected in the field is transferred to the computerized control
centre, where, using the HMI, it is displayed in text or graphic form. The
hardware is the main terminal unit (MTU) that resides at the control centre,
communication facilities such as telephone line, radio, satellite and cable, and
remote terminal units (RTUs) or programmable logic controllers - distributed
over large geographic locations to monitor sensors and control actuators.
Thanks to the communication equipment, information flows constantly to and
from the MTU and RTUs. The software determines when to monitor, what to
monitor, acceptable parameter ranges, type of response, etc. (Alade A. A.,
October-2017).
4.2 CONCEPT OF SCADA IN ENERGY TRANSMISSION
SCADA systems consist of the following components:
i) Outdoor station equipment: Controllable state of charge (SOC), CT
current transformer, VT voltage transformer, fuel valves, conveyors, and
CB circuit breakers
ii) Digital relays and digital metres: Are examples of intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs). The local processor will be in charge of dozens of
analogue and digital IED and switching equipment inputs and outputs.
iii) Digital Instrument: A device that measures current, voltage, irradiance,
temperature, pressure, wind speed, and flow and is generally located in the
field or in a facility.
iv) Communication devices: These can be either short-range or long-range
communication devices. Local RTUs, instruments, and operational
equipment all have short-range communications attached. These are
typically short-distance cables that use voltage and to transmit digital and
analogue signals. Leased telephone lines, microwaves, satellites, a frame
relay network, and cellular packet data are commonly used in these
communications.

Figure 4.2: SCADA system Network

Large scale photovoltaic solar wind farms connected to the customer's grid
must be equipped with a fully functional and automatically operating SCADA
system. Communication media are the key to data transmission to ensure the
efficiency of the specific SCADA system, so intensive research and testing of
the communication solution is required.
The SCADA system Network, as shown in Figure 4.2 is widely used in an
electrical system to efficiently collect, analyze and observe the data of the
electrical system.
Since the power system deals with the production, transmission, distribution
and renewable energy sectors, monitoring and control are the main aspects in
all these areas.
Thus, the SCADA implementation of the power system improves the overall
efficiency of the system, saving costs and time. This can be achieved by an
operation of optimization, minimization of losses, supervision and control of
production and transport systems.
4.3 UTILITY SHIFTING AND UNDERGROUND
CABLING
The Smart Grid framework as shown in Figure 4.3 is composed of and
concerned with distributed intelligence, including data decentralization,
renewable and distributed energy production and storage, and distribution
system automation. Partnership and customer interaction are a consideration,
as are micro-grids and high-demand electrical devices.

Figure 4.3: Smart Grid Electricity Distribution

Smart Grid is defined as real-time data monitoring and active microgrid
management using rapid two-way digital connections and the application of
technology solutions to the energy distribution infrastructure. Microgrids and
electric utilities, renewable energy producing devices, consumer charging
devices, and third-party organisations such as customers, suppliers, and
regulators all have integration. The smart grid comprises an intelligent
monitoring system that tracks electrical energy flow across the power grid and
incorporates the usage of cables or transmission lines to control power
fluctuations, losses, and cogeneration integration. solar, fuel cells, and wind
power.
Typically, the most efficient smart grid can monitor / control non-critical
residential home appliances during peak energy consumption periods to reduce
energy demand and restore function during off-peak hours. . Optimization
proposals include smart microgrids, smart electricity grids and smart grids. In
addition to normalizing electrical demand, the ability to manage peaks in
power consumption can help avoid brownouts and power outages when
demand for electricity exceeds supply, and helps maintain loads and critical
devices under such conditions.

Figure 4.4: Smart Grid Architecture

The Smart Grid programme has made great progress in modernising and
expanding electric utility infrastructure, with the goal of integrating it into
today's sophisticated communication age in both function and architecture as
shown in Figure 4.4. This progression is accompanied by a slew of
organisational, socioeconomic, technological, and cyber security issues.
Because of the breadth and complexity of these issues, a number of agencies
have taken steps to match their own standards and criteria with these new
problems. The programme also gave several possibilities to investigate new
areas in which data transmission between dispersed and remote power grids
and their equipment might be used.
The integration of SCADA into the Smart Grid is an interesting topic and can
be connected by electrical, communication and data networks, allows
distributed and centralized aggregation of information and control over the
entire electricity distribution network as shown in Figure 4.5. SCADA enables
electricity consumers by linking energy management systems and allowing
them to manage their own energy consumption and prices. It enables the
network to self-heal by responding to power quality concerns, power outages,
and power system failures automatically. SCADA helps network assets run
more efficiently by monitoring and optimising them while lowering operating
and maintenance expenses.
 Figure 4.5: Power Distribution System SCADA
Throughout the power supply chain, smart grid, intelligence, and control are
required. This includes the generation and transmission of electricity from start
to delivery points on the customer side and includes both fixed and mobile
devices in the SG architecture.
4.4 THERMAL ENERGY, LPG, PNG, CNG SUPPLY
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) technology has been
constantly evolving for 30 years. When used in conjunction with
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), it enables distributed industrial
control as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Logical levels of SCADA

The end devices or instruments provide the physical link to the pipeline.
Depending on the kind of remote station, this instrumentation is linked to
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), Remote Terminal Units (RTUs),
and/or flow computers. Data is then sent from remote devices to the SCADA
host via the communications network (also referred to as the SCADA Master
or Master Station). Advanced control and optimization programmes used by
gas controllers, as well as business applications such as back office
measurement and marketing utilised by other departments within the pipeline
company's structure, are examples of applications at the top of the pyramid.
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)
PLCs are programmed to regulate important processes. A PLC normally
requires alternating current (AC) electricity as well as some level of
environmental control and programming. PLCs are often seen in bigger
establishments.
RTU (Remote Terminal Unit)
RTUs are compact, low-power, low-cost devices that convert electrical signals
from instrumentation to data and make that data available to the SCADA Host.
EFM (Electronic Flow Computer)
EFM are specialised RTUs designed to make measurements in accordance
with different API and AGA standards. Furthermore, EFM creates an auditable
record of measurement and makes it available to the measurement back office.
Station Automation
The distant facilities are referred to as "stations." Compressor stations, valve
stations, and metre stations are common features in natural gas pipelines.
Stations can also include larger facilities such as gas storage, gas processing,
and fractionators in the midstream. Stations are essentially remote installations
whose operation has an influence on the pipeline's functioning.
Compressor Stations
Each compressor has its own "Unit PLC," which is usually given by the
compressor manufacturer. The unit PLCs are linked to a "Station PLC," which
collects all key unit data as well as station-specific data such as pressures,
valve positions, liquid levels, power information, fire and gas detection, and
analyzers, to mention a few. The SCADA host exchanges data with the Station
PLC.
Most compressor stations feature a local Human Machine Interface (HMI) that
allows a local operator to see station data. It should be noted that, while a
metre station is frequently located at or near the compressor station, it is
normally managed independently.
A big compressor station may include dozens of PLCs and many HMIs. These
stations may also function as communications hubs, receiving data from
neighbouring valve and metre stations. A big compressor station might have
millions of dollars worth of automation and communications technology added.
Meter Stations
Meter stations can range in size from modest single-run units to massive multi-
run, bi-directional units. Orifice metres, turbines, and ultrasonic metres are
examples of common fundamental measuring components. The EFM is used to
make AGA and API-compliant measurements. The EFM or an extra PLC or
RTU may provide logic and controls for tube switching, pressure regulation,
heaters, valves, and odorant control.
Valve Stations
This is the most basic stop along the pipeline. A tiny RTU is placed to monitor
pressure (typically both upstream and downstream of the valve) and to enable
remote operation of the block valve by triggering remote control instructions to
open and close the valve and reporting current valve position.
Field Communications
SCADA was traditionally supported by narrow band, serial communications
technology such as satellites and/or data radios. While most of this technology
is still in use, wireless communications, in particular cellular and newer IP
radios, are experiencing drastic and accelerated transformation.
Network Communications
Moving data from the field to the host has practically become a "no-brainer"
for SCADA. The majority of large gas transmission companies have extended
their corporate WANs to at least their major compressor stations. Smaller
stations or more remote locations, for example, are easily picked up by low-
cost spread spectrum radios and mesh networks that use the IP
communications protocol. Satellite expenses, both hardware and time, have
also dropped dramatically.
SCADA Data Flow
A SCADA Data Flow is used to explain software connections and logical
connections in a SCADA System, whereas a SCADA Topology Diagram is
used to illustrate the different hardware components and physical (ethernet or
serial cables) connections in a SCADA System (protocols).
The major goal is to keep the pipeline operational in real time. The following
primary functions are carried out in order to achieve this criteria:
 Interact with the field gadgets.
 Process the data and save it in the real-time database.
 Real-time data should be historized and stored in a historian.
 Data should be shown for the controllers.
 Data that exceeds predefined operational limitations triggers an alarm.
A secondary aim is to source data for other applications and departments to
ensure the pipeline's safe and lucrative operation.
Polling Master
The SCADA host must be able to connect to the numerous communication
channels used to interact with Field devices. This hardware interface is the
straightforward part. The software interface between the host and the field
devices is more complicated, or, to put it another way, it must arbitrate the
various asynchronous (Serial) connections from the synchronous (IP)
operations. It is not uncommon for a big gas transmission firm to install 10, 15,
or more various types of PLCs, RTUs, and flow computers on the pipeline,
each communicating over a different serial protocol.
Although attempts have been made to build gas industry protocol standards
such as Enron Modbus, it is still necessary for the SCADA host to have a
library of protocol drivers to accommodate the broad range of devices. Backup
communications pathways to essential stations must be supported by the
programme.
Real-Time Database
The real-time database is at the heart of a SCADA system. This is where all of
the field data is processed and stored. A huge system must be capable of
managing hundreds of thousands of data points in a timely and robust manner.
The real-time database is memory-resident, which means that all of the data is
kept in the server's RAM rather than on the disc. The real-time database
handles all alarm processing, control sequences, and other operations.
The real-time database provides data to the human machine interface (HMI),
which is often deployed on operator workstations and other users, as well as
other real-time applications such as leak detection.
Gas Scheduling
Gas Schedule Tracking is another popular application. This programme
analyses the gas plan from the nominations system to the real-time flow
numbers in order to assist the controller in meeting the receipt or delivery
requirements. (Treat)
Real-time Transient Models
Many gas transmission firms have developed numerical hydraulic models that
may be used both offline and online. One of the most common internet
applications is leak detection. The predicted pressure and flow values are
compared to the real pressure and flow readings from the SCADA system.
Disparities may suggest a leak.
Models are also employed in the development of training simulators. A
training simulator connects an offline copy of the SCADA system to a model
that replicates the pipeline.
Through his training console, an instructor causes an upset in the model, which
propagates to the SCADA system. As though he were running the pipeline, the
learner operates the SCADA console.
Measurement Systems
Pipeline businesses employ measurement systems to handle custody transfer
data from metering stations. This is sometimes referred to as the "cash register"
component of pipeline operation. At the metering stations, flow computers
and/or RTUs offer both real-time flows and volumes for operational reasons as
well as API 21.1 data for custody transfer. Almost usually, the host
measurement system is distinct from the SCADA system. Most current
SCADA systems, however, have a communications front end that can poll for
both real-time operating data and API 21.1 custody transfer data. (Treat)
In the Town Gas Distribution (CGD) segment, SCADA monitors and controls
the flow of natural gas through a pipeline by providing gas flow data to
centralized gas monitoring stations. Service stations assimilate and manage
data provided by SCADAs and compressor stations.
This primarily includes pipeline flow, operating status, pressure and
temperature readings, and is used to assess the condition of the entire pipeline
network at all times.
The application of SCADA in CGD networks has become essential because it
plays an important role in the detection of leaks and the prevention of
environmental risks. SCADA also allows CGD companies to modernize the
programming of gas transmission and distribution.
SCADA system can be used in compressed natural gas (CNG) stations, and
industrial units for online production of billed and actual consumptions and
other things like monitoring of losses at CNG stations, performance parameters,
pressure monitoring of each CNG compressor, and many more.
Among the various web services offered by SCADA, the O-Data version 4.0
protocol is likely to gain in importance in the years to come because it allows
the creation and consumption of searchable web services in a simple and
standardized way. The advantages offered by O-Data are authentication, real-
time access, maintenance of historical data, etc. With real-time monitoring of
gas consumption, the SCADA system helps reduce data errors, automate
processes, etc. (smartutilities, 2021)
SAQ 1
(a) What is SCADA? How it is helpful in energy transmission?
(b) Explain briefly, how does the smart grid works under SCADA.
Support your answer with a schematic network.
(c) How can SCADA be used in the gas distribution sector?
4.5 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Alade A. A., A. O. (October-2017). Overview of the Supervisory Control and

Data Acquisition (SCADA) System. International Journal of Scientific
& Engineering Research Volume 8.
Khairy Sayed, a. H. (2019). SCADA and Smart Energy Grid Control
Automation.
smartutilities. (2021, August 13). Retrieved August 13, 2021, from
[Link]: [Link]
control/
Treat, R. W. (n.d.). SCADA AND TELEMETRY IN GAS TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS. Houston, Texas: EnerSys Corporation .
 MIO– 003
SMART URBAN ENERGY AND SMART TRANSPORTATION
SYSTEMS

BLOCK 1 : SMART ENERGY

Unit 1 : Introduction to Smart Energy
Unit 2 : Smart Energy Systems
Unit 3 : Micro and Smart Grid
Unit 4 : Introduction to SCADA

BLOCK-2 : SMART AND INTELLIGENT

TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Unit 5 : Introduction to Smart Urban Transportation Systems
Unit 6 : Intelligent Transportation Systems
Unit 7 : Intelligent Traffic Management System
Unit 8 : Challenges and Probable Solutions

BLOCK -3 : FUTURE FOR AUTONOMOUS AND

CONNECTED VEHICLES
Unit 9 : Future of Sustainable Smart Transportation Systems
Unit 10 : Future of Sustainable Smart Transportation Systems-II
Unit 11 : Big Data and IoT applications in Transportation Systems

BLOCK -4 : CASE STUDIES

Unit 12 : Case Studies Part I
Unit 13 : Case Studies Part II
Unit 14 : Case Studies Part III

SOET/IGNOU 2022 (Digital Print)

ISBN - 978-93-5568-407-3