Layered Architecture

And Reference Models

Chapter 6
The OSI Model
 There are many users who use computer network and are located all
over the world. To ensure national and worldwide data
communication ISO (ISO stands for International Organization of
Standardization.) developed this model.
 The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI model) is a conceptual
model that characterizes and standardizes the communication
functions of a telecommunication or computing system without
regard to their underlying internal structure and technology.
 Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with
standard protocols. The model partitions a communication system
into abstraction layers. The original version of the model defined
seven layers.
 A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a
network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it
calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that comprise
the contents of that path
 The OSI Model is divided into seven Layers, These include
1. Physical layer
2. Data Link Later
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Layer 1: Physical Layer
 The physical layer has the following major functions:
 It defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data
connection. It defines the relationship between a device and a
physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper or fiber optical cable,
radio frequency). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line
impedance, cable specifications, signal timing and similar
characteristics for connected devices and frequency (5 GHz or 2.4
GHz etc.) for wireless devices.
 It defines transmission mode i.e. simplex, half duplex, full duplex.
 It defines the network topology as bus, mesh, or ring being some of
the most common.
 Encoding of bits is done in this layer.
 It determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by
baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
 It mostly deals with transmission of raw bits over a communication
channel
 Layer 1 Physical examples include Ethernet, FDDI, B8ZS, V.35, V.24,
Layer 2: Data Link Layer

 The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw

transmission facility into a line that appears free of undetected
transmission errors to the network layer
 It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input
data into data frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand
bytes) and transmit the frames sequentially.
 If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each
frame by sending back and the data link layer provides
Acknowledgement Frame.
 e-to-node data transfer—a link between two directly connected
nodes. It detects and possibly corrects errors that may occur in the
physical layer.
 It, among other things, defines the protocol to establish and
terminate a connection between two physically connected devices. It
also defines the protocol for flow control between them.
 Layer 2 Data Link examples include PPP, FDDI, ATM, IEEE 802.5/
802.2, IEEE 802.3/802.2, HDLC, Frame Relay.
 The Data Link layer is further Subdivided into two layers
 Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling
how devices in a network gain access to medium and
permission to transmit it.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - responsible for identifying
Network layer protocols and then encapsulating them and
controls error checking and frame synchronization.
 Other Protocols which operate in the Data Link Layer include:
 The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) : data link layer that can
operate over several different physical layers, such as
synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
 The ITU-T G.hn standard: Provides high-speed local area
networking over existing wires (power lines, phone lines and
coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer that
provides both error correction and flow control by means of a
selective-repeat sliding-window protocol
Layer 3: Network Layer
 The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable length data sequences (called datagrams) from
one node to another connected to the same network.
 It translates logical network address into physical machine address.
 A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on
which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected
to it to transfer messages to other nodes connected to it by merely
providing the content of a message and the address of the destination
node and letting the network find the way to deliver the message to
the destination node
 If the message is too large to be transmitted from one node to another
on the data link layer between those nodes, the network may
implement message delivery by splitting the message into several
fragments at one node, sending the fragments independently, and
reassembling the fragments at another node. It may, but need not,
report delivery errors.
 In summary the functions of the Network layer include Routing,
switching, Subnetting,Addressing, Internetworking, Error Handling,
Congestion Control and Packet Sequencing.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
 Provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and
is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures
complete data transfer.
 The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of
transferring variable-length data sequences from a source to a destination
host via one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of service
functions.
 An example of a transport-layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), usually built on top of the Internet
Protocol (IP).
 The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols
are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer
can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful
data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The
transport layer creates packets out of the message received from the
application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long message into
 An easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a
post office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail
and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that a post office manages
the outer envelope of mail.
 Core elements of the Transport Layer include :
 Addressing
 Connection Establishment
 Connection Release
 Flow Control and Buffering
 Multiplexing
 Crash recovery
 Layer 4 Transport examples include SPX, TCP, UDP.
 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core members of the
Internet protocol suite. UDP provides a way for applications to send
encapsulated IP datagrams and send them without having to
establish a connection
Layer 5: Session Layer
 This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
applications.
 The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations,
exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It
deals with session and connection coordination
 It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and
establishes check pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart
procedures.
 The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of
sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and
also for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually
used in the Internet Protocol Suite.
 The session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application
environments that use remote procedure calls.
 Layer 5 Session examples include NFS, NetBios names, RPC, SQL.
Layer 6: Presentation Layer
 This layer provides independence from differences in data representation
(e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice
versa.
 The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept.
 This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing
freedom from compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax
layer.
 The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer
entities, in which the application-layer entities may use different syntax and
semantics if the presentation service provides a big mapping between them.
 If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are encapsulated
into session protocol data units, and passed down the protocol stack.
 Layer 6 Presentation examples include encryption, ASCII, EBCDIC, TIFF, GIF,
PICT, JPEG, MPEG, MIDI.
Layer 7: Application Layer
 Layer 7, supports application and end-user processes.
 Communication partners are identified, quality of service is
identified, user authentication and privacy are considered, and any
constraints on data syntax are identified.
 Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides
application services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network
software services
 Application-layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication. When identifying communication
partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability
of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
 When determining resource availability, the application layer must
decide whether sufficient network or the requested communication
exists
 Layer 7 Application examples include WWW browsers, NFS, SNMP,
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 The Internet protocol suite is the computer networking model and set
of communications protocols used on the Internet and similar
computer networks.
 It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because its most important protocols,
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP)
were the first networking protocols defined during its development.
 It is occasionally known as the Department of Defense (DoD) model,
because the development of the networking model was funded by
DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense.
 To interconnect your TCP/IP network with other networks, you must
obtain a unique IP address for your network. At the time of this writing,
you obtain this address from an Internet service provider (ISP).

 If hosts on your network are to participate in the Internet Domain

Name System (DNS), you must obtain and register a unique domain
name. The InterNIC coordinates the registration of domain names
through a group of worldwide registries
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture Model
 The OSI model describes idealized network communications with a
family of protocols. TCP/IP does not directly correspond to this model.
TCP/IP either combines several OSI layers into a single layer, or does
not use certain layers at all. The following table shows the layers of
the TCP/IP. The table lists the layers from the topmost layer
(application) to the bottommost layer (physical network
TCP/IP Protocol Stack
OSI Ref. OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer TCP/IP Protocol
Layer No. Equivalent Examples
5,6,7 Application, Application NFS, NIS, DNS,
Session, LDAP, telnet, ftp,
Presentation rlogin
4 Transport Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP

3 Network Internet IPv4, IPv6, ARP,

ICMP
2 Datalink Datalink PPP, IEEE 802.2

1 Physical Physical Ethernet (IEEE

Physical Network Layer

 The physical network layer specifies the characteristics of the

hardware to be used for the network.
 For example, physical network layer specifies the physical
characteristics of the communications media. T
 he physical layer of TCP/IP describes hardware standards such as IEEE
802.3, the specification for Ethernet network media, and RS-232, the
specification for standard pin connectors.
 Specifies details of how data is physically sent through the network,
including how bits are electrically signaled by hardware devices that
interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable,
optical fiber, or twisted-pair copper wire.
 This is the lowest level of the TCP/IP protocol stack and functions
carried out here include encapsulation of IP packets into frames for
transmission, mapping IP addresses to physical hardware addresses
(MAC Addresses) and the use of protocols for the physical
transmission of data.
Data-Link Layer

 The data-link layer identifies the network protocol type of the packet,
in this instance TCP/IP.
 The data-link layer also provides error control and “framing.”
Examples of data-link layer protocols are Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing
and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing
 The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer
interfaces of two different hosts on the same link.
 The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link
can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network
card
Internet Layer
 The IP protocol and its associated routing protocols are possibly the
most significant of the entire TCP/IP suite. IP is responsible for the
following:
 IP addressing – The IP addressing conventions are part of the IP
protocol. Designing an IPv4 Addressing Scheme introduces IPv4
addressing and IPv6 Addressing Overview introduces IPv6
addressing.
 Host-to-host Communications – IP determines the path a packet
must take, based on the receiving system's IP address.
 Packet Formatting – IP assembles packets into units that are
known as datagrams. Datagrams are fully described in Internet
Layer: Where Packets Are Prepared for Delivery.
 Fragmentation – If a packet is too large for transmission over the
network media, IP on the sending system breaks the packet into
smaller fragments. IP on the receiving system then reconstructs
the fragments into the original packet.
Transport Layer
 The TCP/IP transport layer ensures that packets arrive in sequence
and without error, by swapping acknowledgments of data reception,
and retransmitting lost packets.
 This type of communication is known as end-to-end. Transport layer
protocols at this level are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP). TCP and SCTP provide reliable, end-to-end service. UDP
provides unreliable datagram service
 the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous
reliability issues in providing the following services
 Data arrives in-order
 Data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)
 duplicate data is discarded
 Lost or discarded packets are resent
 Includes traffic congestion control
Application Layer
 The application layer is concerned with providing network services to
applications.
 There are many application network processes and protocols that
work at this layer, including HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
and the and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 The application layer defines standard Internet services and network
applications that anyone can use. These services work with the
transport layer to send and receive data. Many application layer
protocols exist.
 At this layer sockets and port numbers are used to differentiate the
path and sessions which applications operate.
 Most application layer protocols, especially on the server side, have
specially allocated port numbers, e.g. HTTP = 80 and SMTP = 25, and
FTP = 20 (Control), 21 (Data).
IP Addressing and Subnetting

 An IP address is an address used in order to uniquely identify a device

on an IP network.
 The address is made up of 32 binary bits, which can be divisible into
a network portion and host portion with the help of a subnet mask.
 The 32 binary bits are broken into four octets (1 octet = 8 bits).
 Each octet is converted to decimal and separated by a period (dot).
For this reason, an IP address is said to be expressed in dotted
decimal format (for example, 172.16.81.100).
 The value in each octet ranges from 0 to 255 decimal, or 00000000 -
11111111 binary.
IP Address Classes
 IP addresses are divided into 5 classes, each of which is designated
with the alphabetic letters A to E.
 Class D addresses are used for multicasting.
 Class E addresses are reserved for testing & some mysterious future
use
 The 5 IP classes are split up based on the value in the 1st octet:
Class Leading Start address End address
bits

A 0 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.25
5

B 10 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.25
5

C 110 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.25

5
 Using the ranges, you can determine the class of an address from its
1st octet value.
 An address beginning with 120 is a Class A address, 155 is a Class B
address & 220 is a Class C address.
 The 32 bits of the IP address are divided into Network & Host
portions, with the octets assigned as a part of one or the other
Subnetting
 An IP address has 2 parts:
 The Network identification.
 The Host identification.
 Frequently, the Network & Host portions of the address need to be
separately extracted.
 In most cases, if you know the address class, it’s easy to separate the
2 portions.
 With the rapid growth of the internet & the ever-increasing demand
for new addresses, the standard address class structure has been
expanded by borrowing bits from the Host portion to allow for more
Networks.
 Under this addressing scheme, called Subnetting, separating the
Network & Host requires a special process called Subnet Masking.
 The subnet masking process was developed to identify & extract the
Network part of the address.
 A subnet mask, which contains a binary bit pattern of ones & zeros, is
applied to an address to determine whether the address is on the
local Network.
 If it is not, the process of routing it to an outside network begins.
 The function of a subnet mask is to determine whether an IP address
exists on the local network or whether it must be routed outside the
local network.
 It is applied to a message’s destination address to extract the
network address.
 If the extracted network address matches the local network ID, the
destination is located on the local network.
Comparison of Models

Similarities
 Despite using a different concept for layering than the OSI model,
these layers are often compared with the OSI layering scheme in the
following way
 The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer,
presentation layer, and most of the session layer.
 Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function
of the OSI session layer as well as the OSI transport layer.
 The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI
network layer.
 The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the
physical layers, as well as some protocols of the OSI's network
layer
Differences
 The main differences between the two models are as follows:
 TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the
internet has developed. The OSI model however is a "generic,
protocol- independent standard."
 TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its
application layer
 TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the
network access layer.
 TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler model and this is mainly due
to the fact that it has fewer layers.
 TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly
due to the fact because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around
which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains
creditability due to this reason. Where as in contrast networks are
not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a
guidance tool.
 The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the