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Materials Horizons: From Nature to Nanomaterials

Ashok Kumar Nadda

Priya Banerjee
Swati Sharma
Phuong Nguyen-Tri Editors

Membranes
for Water
Treatment and
Remediation
Materials Horizons: From Nature
to Nanomaterials

Series Editor
Vijay Kumar Thakur,School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing,
Cranfield University, Cranfield, UK
Materials are an indispensable part of human civilization since the inception of life
on earth. With the passage of time, innumerable new materials have been explored
as well as developed and the search for new innovative materials continues briskly.
Keeping in mind the immense perspectives of various classes of materials, this
series aims at providing a comprehensive collection of works across the breadth of
materials research at cutting-edge interface of materials science with physics,
chemistry, biology and engineering.
This series covers a galaxy of materials ranging from natural materials to
nanomaterials. Some of the topics include but not limited to: biological materials,
biomimetic materials, ceramics, composites, coatings, functional materials, glasses,
inorganic materials, inorganic-organic hybrids, metals, membranes, magnetic
materials, manufacturing of materials, nanomaterials, organic materials and
pigments to name a few. The series provides most timely and comprehensive
information on advanced synthesis, processing, characterization, manufacturing and
applications in a broad range of interdisciplinary fields in science, engineering and
technology.
This series accepts both authored and edited works, including textbooks,
monographs, reference works, and professional books. The books in this series will
provide a deep insight into the state-of-art of Materials Horizons and serve students,
academic, government and industrial scientists involved in all aspects of materials
research.
Review Process
The proposal for each volume is reviewed by the following:
1. Responsible (in-house) editor
2. One external subject expert
3. One of the editorial board members.
The chapters in each volume are individually reviewed single blind by expert
reviewers and the volume editor.
Ashok Kumar Nadda · Priya Banerjee ·
Swati Sharma · Phuong Nguyen-Tri
Editors

Membranes for Water

Treatment and Remediation
Editors
Ashok Kumar Nadda Priya Banerjee
Department of Biotechnology Department of Environmental Studies
and Bioinformatics Centre for Distance and Online Education
Jaypee University of Information Rabindra Bharati University
Technology Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Waknaghat, India
Phuong Nguyen-Tri
Swati Sharma Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry
University Institute of Biotechnology and Physics
Chandigarh University Université du Québec à Trois-Rivière
Mohali, Punjab, India Trois-Rivières, QC, Canada

ISSN 2524-5384 ISSN 2524-5392 (electronic)

Materials Horizons: From Nature to Nanomaterials
ISBN 978-981-19-9175-2 ISBN 978-981-19-9176-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9176-9

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
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The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
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Preface

Crisis of fresh water resources has been intensified due to climate change, rapid
population growth, and global increase in urbanization. Reclamation of wastewater
has been considered crucial for reducing fresh water usage and achieving water
sustainability. Reclaimed wastewater has been considered as an alternative water
resource for non-potable or (indirect) potable use, especially in the counties or
regions facing water scarcity. Various membrane-based techniques have been widely
investigated for treatment of wastewater and production of treated water of superior
quality. Over the last two decades, wastewater reclamation has received considerable
attention as it offers an option to meet the requirements of the communities that
are unable to access centralized wastewater facility; facilitate commercial buildings
for achieving water sustainability; reduce water supply costs and decrease the
load on centralized wastewater treatment systems; and spend less energy. It also
releases lower CO 2 in comparison to centralized wastewater reuse systems as it
does not need a higher degree of treatment in terms of wastewater characteristics.
Reclaimed wastewater may have more public acceptance in comparison to municipal
wastewater reuse due to cultural resistance and barriers in some countries.
In recent years, application of membrane-based techniques in wastewater
treatment has been considered as a promising technique and has gained increasing
scientific attention. Compared to other wastewater treatment technologies,
membrane-based systems offer several advantages. Membranes provide a permanent
barrier to suspended particles (including bacteria and virus) and macromolecules
greater than the pore size of the membrane material, which result in an improved
quality of treated wastewater. Decreased membrane price and development of
new membrane materials facilitate membrane systems to achieve more efficient
wastewater treatment with economic feasibility. Membrane systems exert less envi-
ronmental footprint due to their compact nature. Despite more technical progress and
practical applications of membrane-based wastewater treatment, a major challenge
is membrane fouling, which inevitably occurs during wastewater treatment and
leads to a higher energy demand and increased maintenance cost. Membrane-based
separations are commonly performed with polymeric membranes due to their higher
flexibility, easy pore forming mechanism, good film forming property, mechanical

v
vi Preface

strength, chemical stability, high perm selectivity, selective transfer of chemical

species, inexpensive materials for its fabrications required pore sizes for various
filtration processes, low cost and smaller space for installation as compared to other
membranes. Owing to these properties these membranes are widely applied in
pressure driven processes such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis
for wastewater treatment.
This book aims to present comprehensive information on membrane-based
techniques in wastewater treatment including direct pressure-driven and osmotic-
driven membrane processes, hybrid membrane processes (such as membrane biore-
actors and integrating membrane separation with other processes), and resource
recovery-oriented membrane-based processes.

Waknaghat, India Ashok Kumar Nadda

Kolkata, India Priya Banerjee
Mohali, India Swati Sharma
Trois-Rivières, Canada Phuong Nguyen-Tri
Contents

1 Polymeric Membranes for Water Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Swati Sharma, Shreya Gupta, Sukhminderjit Kaur,
Deepak Kumar, Priya Banerjee, and Ashok Kumar Nadda
2 Sustainable Wastewater Treatment Using Membrane
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Sahita Karmakar and Shramana Roy Barman
3 Polymeric Nanocomposite Membranes for Treatment
of Industrial Effluents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Aisha Zaman, Adrija Ghosh, Sumon Santra, Jishnu Chakraborty,
Jonathan Tersur Orasugh, and Dipankar Chattopadhyay
4 Polymeric Nano-composite Membranes for Waste Water
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Venkatalakshmi Jakka and Shubhalakshmi Sengupta
5 Membrane-Based Technologies for Industrial Wastewater
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Ankita Vinayak, Neha Rathi, Poonam Kushan, Swati Sharma,
and Gajendra B. Singh
6 Membrane Bioreactor: A Potential Stratagem for Wastewater
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Anamika Paul, Disha Dasgupta, Sourav Hazra,
Amrita Chakraborty, Maryam Haghighi, and Nilanjan Chakraborty
7 Removal of Toxic Emerging Pollutants Using Membrane
Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Aisha Zaman, Jishnu Chakraborty, Sumon Santra,
Baba Gabi, Jonathan Tersur Orasugh, Priya Banerjee,
and Dipankar Chattopadhyay

vii
viii Contents

8 Biopolymeric Hydrogels: A New Era in Combating Heavy

Metal Pollution in Industrial Wastewater
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Aliva Saha, Souravi Bardhan, Shubham Roy, Subhojit Dutta,
and Sukhen Das
9 Resource Recovery from Wastewater Using Polymeric
Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Arkapriya Nandi, Arindam Rakshit, and Priya Banerjee
10 Antibacterial and Antifouling Properties of Membranes
. . . . . . . . . . 249
Priyankari Bhattacharya and Priya Banerjee
11 Life Cycle Analysis of Polymeric Membrane-Based Processes
. . . . . 277
Priya Banerjee
About the Editors

Dr. Ashok Kumar Naddais currently an Assis-

tant Professor in the Department of Biotechnology
and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information
Technology, India. He holds research and teaching
experience of over 10 years in the field of micro-
bial biotechnology, with research expertise focusing
on various issues pertaining to nano-biocatalysis,
microbial enzymes, biomass, bioenergy and climate
change. Dr. Nadda teaches courses on enzymology
and enzyme technology, microbiology, environmental
biotechnology, bioresources and industrial products
to the bachelor, master and Ph.D. students. He also
trains students for enzyme purification expression, gene
cloning and immobilization onto nanomaterials experi-
ments in his lab. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow in
the State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology,
Huazhong Agricultural University, China. He also
worked as a Brain Pool researcher/Assistant Professor
at Konkuk University, South Korea. Dr. Nadda has a
keen interest in microbial enzymes, biocatalysis, 2CO
conversion, biomass degradation, biofuel synthesis, and
bioremediation. He has published over 150 scientific
contributions in the form of research, review, books,
book chapters and others in various journals of national
and international repute. The research output includes
130 research articles, 48 book chapters and 25 books.
He is also a member of the editorial board and reviewer
committee of the various journals of international
repute.

ix
x About the Editors

Dr. Priya Banerjee is presently serving as Assis-

tant Professor, Department of Environmental Studies,
Centre for Distance and Online Education, Rabindra
Bharati University, Kolkata. She has completed her
masters in Environmental Science from University of
Calcutta, Kolkata. After qualifying UGC NET in Envi-
ronmental Science, she completed her Ph.D. research
from the Department of Environmental Science, Univer-
sity of Calcutta, Kolkata. She has several national and
international research articles to her credit. She has also
participated in various national and international semi-
nars till date and has received awards for best platform
and poster presentations at the same, including the best
poster presentation award at the 100th Indian Science
Congress, held at Kolkata. Her current research interests
include integrated waste management and toxicology
strategies. She is presently in research collaborations
with several national and international institutes.

Dr. Swati Sharmais working as assistant professor

at University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh
University, India. She has been working in the field
of food and environmental biotechnology for the last
eight years. She has a keen interest in biopolymers,
polymeric nanocomposites, waste management and
wastewater treatment technologies. She completed her
Ph.D. from University Malaysia Pahang, Malaysia. She
worked as a visiting researcher in College of Life and
Environmental Sciences at Konkuk University, South
Korea. Dr. Sharma completed her master’s degree from
Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture
and Forestry, India. She has also worked as program
co-coordinator at Himalayan action research center
Dehradoon and Senior research fellow at India agri-
cultural research institute. Dr. Sharma has published
more than 40 research outputs in the form of research
papers, review articles, books book chapters and confer-
ence proceedings in reputed international journals.
Presently, Dr. Sharma’s research is in the field of bioplas-
tics, hydrogels, keratin nano-fibres and nano-particles,
biodegradable polymers and polymers with antioxidant
and anti-cancerous activities and sponges.
About the Editors xi

Phuong Nguyen-Tri is a professor at the Depart-

ment of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Physics, Univer-
sité du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR), Canada. He
is the founder of the Laboratory of Advanced Mate-
rials for Energy and Environment (Nguyen-Tri Lab)
at UQTR and holds the UQTR Research Chair of
Advanced materials for Health and Security at work.
He obtained his M.Sc. degree from École Nationale
Supérieure de Chimie de Mulhouse, France and a Ph.D.
degree in Material Sciences from the Conservatoire
National des Arts et Métiers, France, in 2009. His main
research interests are nanomaterials, hybrid nanoparti-
cles, smart coatings, polymer crystallization, polymer
aging and polymer blends and composites. He is also
visiting Professor at UdeM and associate Professor at
ETS of Montréal, regular member of I2E3, CQMF
and CREPEC of Quebec. His main research interests
are nanomaterials, polymeric membranes, biomaterials,
valorization of biomass, hybrid nanoparticles, smart
coatings, polymer crystallization, polymer blends and
composites. Dr. Nguyen has edited 14 books and mono-
graphs. He served as editor of 10 special issues in the
ISI indexed journals.
Chapter 1
Polymeric Membranes for Water
Treatment

Swati Sharma, Shreya Gupta, Sukhminderjit Kaur, Deepak Kumar,

Priya Banerjee, and Ashok Kumar Nadda

1 Introduction

The most critical challenge faced by mankind nowadays is the shortage of fresh
water caused by urbanization, industrial development, population growth, energy
plant, and climate change [14, 62]. As the growing population and industrialization
are increasing rapidly demand for safe, clean, and drinkable water is also increasing.
In oceans, around 97% of water is stored as salty water that is not suitable for agri-
cultural use or human consumption, only (>3%) of water on earth is available for
agriculture and drinking purpose, and a large amount of this present is locked in the
form of underground water, glaciers, and ice caps [86]. Various organic and inorganic
contaminants are introduced into the water systems by the effluents from industrial
and agricultural activity making them unsuitable for consumption. The main problem
that needs to be solved is water quality, water quantity, and the removal of contam-
inants needed to avoid the side effects on human health and the environment. To
produce clean water, many economical and multifunctional processes are developed.
For the treatment of wastewater, many technologies have been developed,
including methods such as ion exchange [12], adsorption [35], reverse osmosis [110],
and gravity [16], among these methods, adsorption is a widely used method for

S. Sharma (B) · S. Gupta · S. Kaur · D. Kumar

Department of Biotechnology, University Institute of Biotechnology, Chandigarh University,
Mohali 140413, Punjab, India
e-mail: [email protected]
P. Banerjee
Department of Environmental Studies, Centre for Distance and Online Education (CDOE),
Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata 700091, India
A. K. Nadda
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee University of Information Technology,
Waknaghat, Solan 173234, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 1
A. K. Nadda et al. (eds.), Membranes for Water Treatment and Remediation,
Materials Horizons: From Nature to Nanomaterials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9176-9_1
2 S. Sharma et al.

the removal of water contaminants because of its low cost, easy to use and avail-
ability of different adsorbents. The use of activated carbon, polymer composites,
magnetic nanoparticles, and nanotubes are included in the different adsorbents, they
can remove various types of contaminants including heavy metals [48, 54, 84, 85].
Despite being able to remove most of the water pollutants/contaminants, adsorption
also shows some limitations like less use of these adsorbents commercially and a
lack of appropriate adsorbents with high adsorption capacity [26]. Therefore, there
was still a requirement for more efficient techniques/methods such as membrane
technology. For wastewater treatments and desalination, membrane technologies are
proving to be leading methods as membrane filtration presents some advantages such
as maintenance and monitoring, a lower footprint, simple operation, lower mass
storage tubes, compact modular design, and fewer flow rates of chemical sludges
during the production of high-quality water from different sources [25, 46, 73]. This
technology is known to be an effective water separation process because of its high
contamination rejection of high-quality treated water yield [25]. The removal of
soluble components and suspended particulate matter from the wastewater semi-
permeable membranes is the general idea behind the membrane-based wastewater
separation. The application of membrane technology especially in water treatment
has been increasing rapidly over the past few decades, increasing the amount of
efforts by membrane scientists/researchers [68]. The membrane is the functional
component of a membrane filtration process. The separation of different materials
through the membrane depends on molecular size and pore [122], therefore various
membrane processes including nanofiltration (NF), microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltra-
tion (UF), reverse osmosis (RO), and forward osmosis (FO) have been developed
with different separation mechanisms (Fig. 1).
Both polymeric and inorganic materials can be used to prepare/form membranes,
polymeric membranes are mainly organic in nature whereas inorganic membranes are
mostly metals, oxides, and ceramics [70, 99, 114]. In comparison to membranes fabri-
cated from inorganic materials, membranes prepared from the polymeric membrane
are low-priced [70]. During fabrication, it is easy to handle polymeric membranes
and can also be used for the high-water production capacity [51, 70, 99]. The aim of
this chapter is to review the different polymeric membranes used for the treatment of
wastewater and the fabrication of different polymers for the membrane technologies.
The operating cost of water treatment along with permeate quality is determined by
the type of polymer used for the filtration. To avoid the issues such as unwarranted
energy consumption and frequent membrane replacement it is crucial to select the
proper or most suitable type of polymer for a filtration process. The future work,
applications, pros, and cons of polymeric membranes are also discussed briefly.
1 Polymeric Membranes for Water Treatment 3

Fig. 1 Pressure-driven membrane processes for water treatment technologies, showing the particles
effectively captured by each process along with the pore sizes of the membranes used for each
process [53]

2 Polymers Used for Membrane Filtration (Water

Treatment)

Polymers namely polyamide (PA), polysulfone (PSF), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),

polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), poly (arylene ether ketone)
(PAEK), poly (ether imide) (PEI), cellulose acetate (CA), polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF), polyethersulfone (PES), polyaniline nanoparticles (PANI), polyimide (PI),
polyethylene glycol (PEG), poly (methacrylic acid) (PMAA), and poly(arylene ether
sulfone) (PAES) have been used in the fabrication of different membrane processes
(NF, UF, MF, RO) [33].

3 Membrane Processes and Polymers Used

3.1 Nanofiltration

In recent decades, NF membranes have attracted attention as a potential for

water treatment/filtration because of their advantageous properties like low energy
4 S. Sharma et al.

consumption in comparison to RO and high retention of neutral molecules (low

molecular weight) and divalent salts [28, 60, 124]. For some highly polluted waters,
NF is pre-treated to make it more effective, also because of their moderate stability
these membranes can only endure an aqueous solution having a pH range of 2–11.
In a study, textile wastewater is treated with NF membrane and it was reported that
the prepared membrane exhibited decent removal of common salts and dyes and
heavy metal ions, displaying high removal efficiency toward cationic dyes and metal
ions. Nowadays, most available NF membranes are consisting of different polymers
such as PA, PAN, PI, and PVA in TFCs [4, 94, 98, 102–105, 115, 121]. Though,
when in contact with a few amines PIs are not stable, and also in polar solvents
they display very poor stability and performance, therefore, in aqueous solutions
having strong acids/bases, strong amines, and chlorinated solvents these PIs are not
favored, but through the crosslinking process they can be modified and better resis-
tance against such chemicals can be obtained. In a study, PEEK is used as a material
for NF membrane, and it was reported that PEEK membranes are highly resistant
against different acids, bases, and solvents and have a low degree of sulfonation,
but these membranes show low water permeability. These membranes demonstrated
water permeance of 0.7–0.21 and 0.2–0.8 L/h m2 bar when tested for their separation
performance in dimethylformamide (DMF) and tetrahydrofuran (THF), respectively
[18]. Yang and co-workers, reported the use of PMIA/GO composite NF membranes
for the treatment of water. In comparison to the pure PMIA, the fabricated composite
membranes exhibited a better/larger hydrophilic surface that as a result gave rise to
pure water flux, and also high dye rejection, and increased fouling resistance to BSA
(bovine serum albumin) were achieved [111, 112].

3.2 Microfiltration (MF) and Ultrafiltration (UF)

(A) Microfiltration

In microfiltration, separation mainly occurs through sieving because of its large pore
size (approx. 0.1–1.0 m), and removes little or no organic matter, MF mainly removes
the suspended solids or particles, bacteria [20]. However, when pre-treatment is
applied then maybe there is an increase in organic matter removal. MF can be used
as a pre-treatment to reduce fouling potential in RO and NF [96]. MFs main drawback
is that they cannot remove contaminants such as dissolved solids (<1 mm in size), and
it does not act as a barrier to viruses. Microfiltration membranes have been mainly
utilized in wastewater treatment, membrane bioreactor, and membrane distillation
[1, 9, 30–32, 102–105].
A membrane bioreactor (MBR) is an active sludge process in which MF and UF
membranes are combined together for wastewater treatment in different industries.
In the configuration of MBR, the membrane is submerged into the bioreactor, and
treated water is permeated using a vacuum whereas solids are reserved in the biore-
actor. In comparison to a traditional side stream configuration, the current MBR
1 Polymeric Membranes for Water Treatment 5

configuration lowers energy consumption and also reduces the membrane fouling
amount [52]. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), polyethy-
lene (PE), and polyethersulfonate (PES) are mostly used as polymeric membrane
materials for applications of MBR. Among these PVDF accounts for about 45% of
MBR polymeric membranes and because of PAN’s lower affinity to extracellular
polymeric material it is most likely the most fouling-resistant one [59].
Normally, MBR membranes have a pore size between 0.03 and 0.4 m, PES and PE
membranes are mostly available with a pore size of 0.03 and 0.2–0.4 m respectively,
while PVDF membranes are available in the whole range of pore sizes due to their
versatile manufacturing [41]. Compared to UF membranes the integrity of MBR
membranes is less [1].
The two-stage process of CAS (conventional activated sludge) including biotreat-
ment and clarification is replaced by MBR a single integrated process. Some advan-
tages such as reduced footprint, nearly complete separation of suspended solids
from the effluents, product consistency, and reduced sludge production make MBR
superior to conventional treatment [91]. Because MBR systems operate at a higher
concentration of mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) they remove a large range of
biodegradable and hydrophobic trace organics more efficiently than CAS processes,
MBR systems also offer a definitive boundary layer proving a complete suspended
solid retention [40]. Consequently, MBR effluent has the potential to be used as
process water, irrigation water, also as feed to potable reuse applications [50].

(B) Ultrafiltration

In ultrafiltration, compounds can be separated between 0.005–10 µm, these

membranes are highly water filters with less consumption of energy in the removal of
suspended matters, macromolecules, and pathogenic microorganisms [47, 80]. UF
has some drawbacks such as maintaining high-pressure water flow regular cleaning
required and any dissolved inorganic substances in water can’t be removed [120].
In UF membranes as polymeric materials mainly PS and PES are used due to their
strong chemical stability, wide pH operation range, and good mechanical properties
[22, 61, 76, 87, 90, 100, 108]. But the applications of these membranes in the treat-
ment of water are limited because of their hydrophobicity that leads to decreased
permeability of the membrane, also mostly polymeric materials of UF membrane
show hydrophobic properties. Recently for the UF membranes fabrication, some
other natural hydrophobic polymeric materials such as PMAA, PVC, and PVDF are
also used [11, 38, 58, 102–105, 111, 112, 123].
During the operation there can be a decline in water flux because of membrane
hydrophobicity as organic compounds get accumulated favoring the attachment and
growth of microorganisms onto the surface of the membrane, leading to fouling
and failure of the membrane [102–105]. It is important to modify these polymeric
materials to improve their properties and increase their applications in the treat-
ment of water. The main motive to modify these membranes is to increase the
hydrophilicity of the membrane, enhancement in the membrane hydrophilicity also
increases the antifouling properties of the membrane for liquid water-based filtration.
6 S. Sharma et al.

Some polymeric materials such as PSF, PVC, PMMA, and PES are incorporated with
different types of particles or nanoparticles (TiO2 , MSP-1, ZnO, silica) to improve
their properties mainly hydrophilicity [24, 33, 70, 81, 118].

3.3 Reverse Osmosis (RO)

RO technology (Fig. 2) is used for the removal of smaller particles and dissolved
solids, this method is only permeable to molecules of water [72]. To make water
overcome the osmotic pressure enough/high pressure should be applied to RO. In
comparison to UF, the pore size of RO membranes is tighter, these membranes
are able to convert hard water to soft water and require low maintenance [107].
They have extremely small pores and have the potential to remove all particles
smaller than 0.1 nm including bacteria and organics [109]. The main disadvantages
of RO membranes are the high-pressure use, prone to fouling, and being expensive in
comparison to other membranes. Desalinating of water through RO is considered the
most efficient and popular method as it is appropriate for potable and near-to-potable
water production [45, 55].

Fig. 2 Reverse osmosis process showing the separation of salt from water
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